Exploring the Innovative Teaching Mode of Geomatics Based on the Teaching Cloud Platform

Geomatics is an interdisciplinary subject.Many disciplines have teaching demands in this field.A new course on“Geomatics Technology”has been suggested by the Weiyang College of Tsinghua University of China for the major of“Mathematical and Scientific Basic Science+Civil,Hydraulic and Marine Engineering”.This paper offers a data-led geomatics teaching mode,developing a customized teaching cloud platform,to explore the cross-integrated innovative teaching methods.Teachers and students can assign and submit assignments on this platform.The platform constitutes a data flow with the data download,data processing and result sharing.It encourages communication among students in various majors,grades and units using data as the medium,from data processing to application upstream and downstream.In the“Geomatics Technology”course,geospatial data has emerged as a vital element of the multidisciplinary approach.This kind of teaching mode has been used in the postgraduate remote sensing course offered by Tsinghua University’s Department of Civil Engineering and Construction Management.Furthermore,the mode will be used for the first time in the autumn semester of 2022 in the undergraduate teaching of Weiyang College and civil engineering,to offer a novel idea for the reform of courses linked to geospatial informatics.

Identifying anthropogenic and natural causes of wildfires by maximum entropy method-based ignition susceptibility distribution models

Turkey has a high potential for wildfires along its Mediterranean coast because of its dense forest cover and mild climate.An average of 250 wildfires occurs every year with more than 10,000 hectares destroyed due to natural and human-related causes.The study area is sensitive to fires caused by lightning,stubble burning,discarded cigarette butts,electric arcing from power lines,deliberate fire setting,and traffic accidents.However,52%of causes could not be identified due to intense wildfires occurring at the same time and insufficient equipment and personnel.Since wildfires destroy forest cover,ecosystems,biodiversity,and habitats,they should be spatially evaluated by separating them according to their causes,considering environmental,climatic,topographic and forest structure variables that trigger wildfires.In this study,wildfires caused by lightning,the burning of agriculture stubble,discarded cigarette butts and power lines were investigated in the provinces of Aydin,Mugla and Antalya,where 22%of Turkey’s wildfires occurred.The MaxEnt method was used to determine the spatial distribution of wildfires to identify risk zones for each cause.Wildfires were used as the species distribution and the probability of their occurrence estimated.Additionally,since the causes of many wildfires are unknown,determining the causes is important for fire prediction and prevention.The highest wildfire occurrence risks were 9.7%for stubble burning,30.2%for lightning,4.5%for power lines and 16.9%by discarded cigarette butts.In total,1,266 of the 1,714 unknown wildfire causes were identified by the analysis of the cause-based risk zones and these were updated by including cause-as signed unknown wildfire locations for verification.As a result,the Area under the ROC Curve(AUC)values were increased for susceptibility maps.

Target-oriented Q-compensated reverse-time migration by using optimized pure-mode wave equation in anisotropic media

Research on seismic anisotropy and attenuation plays a significant role in exploration geophysics. To enhance the imaging quality for complicated structures, we develop several effective improvements for anisotropic attenuation effects in reverse-time migration (Q-RTM) on surface and vertical seismic profiling (VSP) acquisition geometries. First, to suppress pseudo-shear wave artifact and numerical instability of the commonly used anisotropic pseudo-acoustic wave equations, an optimized pure P-wave dispersion relation is derived and the corresponding pure-mode wave equation is solved by combining the finite-difference and Possion methods. Second, a simplified anisotropic pure-mode visco-acoustic wave equation (PVAWE) based on standard linear solid model is established. Third, a time-dispersion correlation strategy is applied to improve the modeling accuracy. Fourth, we extend a target-oriented scheme to anisotropic attenuated modeling and imaging. Instead of the conventional wavefield modeling and RTM, the proposed approach can extract available wavefield information near the target regions and produce high imaging resolution for target structures. Last, both anisotropic surface and VSP Q-RTMs are executed by combining optimized PVAWE, time-dispersion correlation and target-oriented algorithm. Modeling examples demonstrate the advantages of our schemes. Moreover, our modified Q-compensated imaging workflow can be regarded as a supplement to the classical anisotropic RTM.

Diversity of beetle species and functional traits along gradients of deadwood suggests weak environmental filtering

Background: Gradients in local environmental characteristics may favour the abundance of species with particular traits, while other species decline, or favour species with different traits at the same time, without an increase in average species abundances. Therefore, we asked: do variations in species and traits differ along gradients of deadwood variables? Do species abundance and trait occurrence change with species richness within or between functional groups? Thus, we analysed the beetle assemblages of five forest sites located in Italy, along the Apennines mountains.Methods: From 2012 to 2018 we sampled beetles and five deadwood types in 193 plots to characterise the deadwood gradient: standing dead trees, snags, dead downed trees, coarse woody debris, and stumps. We modelled beetle species relative abundances and trophic traits occurrences against the deadwood variables using joint species distribution models.Results: Out of 462 species, only 77 showed significant responses to at least one deadwood type, with a weak mean response across species. Trophic groups showed mostly negative responses to deadwood variables. Species abundance increased with species richness among sites only for phytophagous and saproxylophagous. Trait occurrence did not increase with species richness among sites, except for phytophagous and saproxylophagous.However, trait occurrence changed significantly with species richness of several trophic groups within some sites.We found that increases in species richness do not result in decreases in species abundance of a given trophic group, but rather null or positive relationships were found suggesting low interspecific competition.Conclusions: Our findings suggest that in Mediterranean mountain forests there is still room for increasing the level of naturalness, at least for what concerns deadwood management. On one side, our findings suggest that competition for deadwood substrates is still low, on the other side they indicate that increasing deadwood volume and types to improve overall beetle richness may increase also beetle abundances.

Assessment of Past and Future Land Use/Land Cover Dynamics of the Old Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and Atwima Nwabiagya Municipal Area, Ghana

Ghana like all countries in Sub-Saharan region of Africa have long been undergoing intense land use land cover changes (LULCC) which have given rise to extensive forest loss (deforestation and degradation), loss of arable land and land degradation. This study assessed the past LULCC in the Atwima Nwabiagya which contains the Barekese and Owabi Headworks) and the old Kumasi Local Assemblies’ areas in Ghana and projected the scenario in 2040 for business-as-usual (BAU). The synergies of satellite imagery of 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020 were classified with an overall accuracy of 90%. Markov Cellular-Automata method was used to forecast the future LULC pattern after detecting main driving forces of LULCC. The findings showed an extensive increase in built up areas from 11% in 1990 to 39% in 2020 owing largely to 23% decrease in forest cover and 6% decrease in agricultural lands within the past 30 years (1990-2020). The projected LULC under the BAU scenario for 2040 showed built-up surge from 39% to 45% indicating additional forest loss from 43% in 2020 to 40% and decreasing agricultural land from 17% to 14%. The main driver for the LULCC is clearly anthropogenic driven as the human population in the study area keeps rising every censual year. This study exemplifies the fast-tracked forest loss, loss of arable land and challenges on ecosystem sustainability of the Barekese-Owabi-Kumasi landscape. The current and projected maps necessitate the apt implementation of suitable interventions such as reforestation, protection measures and policy decision in deliberate land use planning to mitigate further loss of forest cover and safeguard the Barekese and Owabi headworks.

Urbanization and Other Land Use Land Cover Change Assessment in the Greater Kumasi Area of Ghana

Urbanization posits the expression of urban expanse expansion due to population growth, rise in built-up areas, high population density and its correspondingly urban way of life. Unrestrained impetus of development and land use land cover change (LULCC) portent several issues such as unlawful urban sprawl, loss of agricultural land, forest loss and other associated complications. This study analyzed the dynamics of urbanization and other LULCC in Ghana’s Greater Kumasi area via Landsat images (TM 1986, OLI 2013 and OLI 2023) using ERDAS Imagine, Idrisi and ArcGIS software. Implementing supervised classification technique, the Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC) procedure was employed to categories the study area into five LULC classes. Accuracy assessment undertaken on the resultant LULC maps was deemed very satisfactory. The results from 1986-2023 pointed to an upsurge in a built-up extent as of 8% to 41%, a decrease in Closed Forest from 9% to 4%, another decrease in Open Forests from 64% to 33%, a slight increase from 16% to 20% in farmlands and a stable level of water share. Further analysis indicated that the study area had undergone LULCC within the periods 1986-2013 and 2013-2023 at 60% and 37% respectively. The findings showed uncontrolled urban sprawling along major roads and forest loss as deforestation outside protected areas and degradation in protected forest. The monitoring of urbanization and other LULCC is important for local, and national governments and other bodies charged with the implementation of programs and policies that manage and utilize natural resources. Development adapts to mitigate the effect on the environment.

Plant Biodiversity and Structure of Robusta Coffee (Coffea canephora var. robusta) Agroforests in Cameroon

Agroforests are man-made ecosystems in which crops are associated with a main perennial species like Robusta Coffee Agroforests (RCAs), which is counted among the main modes of perennial crops production in Cameroon. Despite the rich ecosystem services provided, the diversity of Associated Species (AS) found in these RCAs and the structure of the landscapes they form remain little known in Cameroon. The current study aimed to inventory AS and characterize the structure of RCAs in four sites (Ayos, Malantouen, Melong and Nkongsamba) belonging to three robusta coffee production basins in Cameroon. A systematic inventory with dendrometric measurements of the wood AS and coffee trees was carried out on 120 one-hectare plot unit, i.e. 30 plots per site. The results showed that 102 AS belonging to 83 genera and 41 families were identified in these RCAs. The RCAs of Ayos in the dense rainforest zone with bimodal rainfall pattern were the most diverse with 71 species, followed by those of Melong and Nkongsamba with respectively 39 and 33 species respectively in the dense rainforest zone with monomodal rainfall pattern, and Malantouen with 33 species in the high savannahs of the west. Structurally, average coffee tree and AS densities founded ranged from 1208 - 1456 plants/ha and 71 - 214 stems/ha and those of basal area from 7.29 - 17.40 m2/ha for coffee trees and 7.97 - 16.14 m2/ha for AS in function of site. Basis on the vertical stratification, the proportion of the 3 - 6 m stratum, which is mainly represented by introduced AS, varied from 38% - 62% depending on the site. The results of this study showed that RCAs contribute to the conservation of plant biodiversity, given the specific richness identified in these ecosystems.

Nonlinear versus linearised model on stand density model fitting and stand density index calculation: analysis of coefficients estimation via simulation

The stand density index,one of the most important metrics for managing site occupancy,is generally calculated from empirical data by means of a coefficient derived from the“self-thinning rule”or stand density model.I undertook an exploratory analysis of model fitting based on simulated data.I discuss the use of the logarithmic transformation(i.e.,linearisation)of the relationship between the total number of trees per hectare(N)and the quadratic mean diameter of the stand(QMD).I compare the classic method used by Reineke(J Agric Res 46:627–638,1933),i.e.,linear OLS model fitting after logarithmic transformation of data,with the“pure”powerlaw model,which represents the native mathematical structure of this relationship.I evaluated the results according to the correlation between N and QMD.Linear OLS and nonlinear fitting agreed in the estimation of coefficients only for highly correlated(between-1 and-0.85)or poorly correlated([-0.39)datasets.At average correlation values(i.e.,between-0.75 and-0.4),it is probable that for practical applications,the differences were relevant,especially concerning the key coefficient for Reineke’s stand density index calculation.This introduced a non-negligible bias in SDI calculation.The linearised log–log model always estimated a lower slope term than did the exponent of the nonlinear function except at the extremes of the correlation range.While the logarithmic transformation is mathematically correct and always equivalent to a nonlinear model in case of prediction of the dependent variable,the difference detected in my studies between the two methods(i.e.,coefficient estimation)was directly related to the correlation between N and QMD in each simulated/disturbed dataset.In general,given the power law as the“natural”structure of the N versus QMD relationship,the nonlinear model is preferred,with a logarithmic transformation used only in the case of violation of parametric assumptions(e.g.data distributed non-normally).

Low-cost cloud computing solution for geo-information processing

Cloud computing has emerged as a leading computing paradigm,with an increasing number of geographic information(geo-information) processing tasks now running on clouds.For this reason,geographic information system/remote sensing(GIS/RS) researchers rent more public clouds or establish more private clouds.However,a large proportion of these clouds are found to be underutilized,since users do not deal with big data every day.The low usage of cloud resources violates the original intention of cloud computing,which is to save resources by improving usage.In this work,a low-cost cloud computing solution was proposed for geo-information processing,especially for temporary processing tasks.The proposed solution adopted a hosted architecture and can be realized based on ordinary computers in a common GIS/RS laboratory.The usefulness and effectiveness of the proposed solution was demonstrated by using big data simplification as a case study.Compared to commercial public clouds and dedicated private clouds,the proposed solution is more low-cost and resource-saving,and is more suitable for GIS/RS applications.

Assessing the vulnerability of a forest ecosystem to climate change and variability in the western Mediterranean sub-region of Turkey：future evaluation

This study evaluates the multifactorial spatial modelling used to assess vulnerability of the Du¨ zlerc？am？（Antalya） forest ecosystem to climate change.This was done to produce data,to develop tools to support decisionmaking and the management of vulnerable Mediterranean forest ecosystems affected by climate change,and to increase the ability of these forest ecosystems to adapt to global change.Based on regionally averaged future climate assessments and projected climate indicators,both the study site and the western Mediterranean sub-region of Turkey will probably become associated with a drier,hotter,more continental and more water-deficient climate.This analysis holds true for all future scenarios,with the exception of RCP4.5 for the period from 2015 to 2030.However,the present dry-sub humid climate dominating this sub-region and the study area shows a potential for change towards more dry climatology and for it to become semiarid between 2031 and 2050 according to the RCP8.5 high emission scenario.All the observed and estimated results and assessments summarized in this study show clearly that the densest forest ecosystem in the southern part of the study site,characterized by mainly Mediterranean coniferous and some mixed forest and maquis vegetation,will very likely be influenced by medium and high degrees of vulnerability to future environmental degradation,climate change and variability.

Some Experiences of Resistivity and Induced Polarization Methods on the Exploration of Sulfide: A Review

Sulfide minerals are a group of compounds with the presence of sulfur. This group’s most abundant and economically members are pyrites, pyrrhotite, chalcocite, galena, sphalerite, and the group of copper sulfides minerals. Resistivity and Induced Polarization (IP) methods, which play an essential role in mineral exploration, showed great success in sulfide exploration. This paper started on reviewing sulfide formation by giving details which help to understand their genesis better. To make the reader understand the procedures and appropriate mineral exploration methods, we have briefly covered the theory, the basic principles of resistivity and IP methods, and different investigation techniques using one, two, and three-dimensional surveys. Based on many electrical surveys, we discussed with examples of resistivity and IP methods applied to the exploration of sulfide deposits: the data inversion and interpretation of the geophysical signatures of most of the sulfide deposits in various geological environments were analyzed and end by showing both successful surveys and limitations of the methods.

Evaluation of the Direct UTM Coordinates Transformation Method Based on the Standard 7-Parameters Transformation

GNSS(global navigation satellite system)observations produce the geodetic position including latitude,longitude,and altitude(or ellipsoidal height)concerning the global reference datum WGS84(Word Geodetic System 1984),which usually should be converted to another local datum to get the desired position meaning in a physical sense,coordinates of points in the local datum are usually calculated by the seven-parameter transformation method.This paper aims to validate the methods of position transformation between WGS84 and the Iraqi local datum Karbala 1979 using the UTM(universal transverse Mercator)projected coordinates directly.The proposed algorithm was tested for 10 ground control points in Erbil city and many selected points in other different cities over all Iraqi territory.The control points are measured by the CHCNAV i73 GNSS receiver.For the evaluation procedure,the RMSE(root mean square error)of the transformed coordinates is calculated with an average value of±10.715 m as an estimated uncertainty of the direct UTM coordinates transformation method over Erbil city territory,and more than±12 m over different places over Iraqi territory.

Assessing vulnerability of a forest ecosystem to climate change and variability in the western Mediterranean sub-region of Turkey

Climate change is a real, pressing and significant global problem. The concept of ‘climate change vulnerability’ helps us to better comprehend the cause/effect relationships behind climate change and its impact on human societies, socioeconomic sectors, and physiographical and ecological systems. In this study, multifactorial spatial modelling evaluated the vulnerability of a Mediterranean forest ecosystem to climate change and variability with regard to land degradation. This produced data and developed tools to support better decision-making and management. As a result, the geographical distribution of Environmental Vulnerability Areas(EVAs) of the forest ecosystem is the estimated Environmental Vulnerability Index(EVI) values. These revealed that, at current levels of environmental degradation, physical, geographical, policy enforcement, and socioeconomic conditions, the area with a ‘‘very low’’ degree of vulnerability covered mainly the town, its surrounding settlements and agricultural lands found principally over the low, flat travertine plateau and the plains to the east and southeast of the district. The spatial magnitude of the EVAs of the forest ecosystem under current environmental degradation was also determined. This revealed that the EVAs classed as ‘‘very low’’accounted for 21% of the area of the forest ecosystem,those classed as ‘‘low’’ for 36%, those classed as ‘‘medium’’ for 20%, and those classed as ‘‘high’’ for 24%.

Land Suitability Assessment and Landuse Planning： A Prerequisite for Food Security and Climate Change Adaptation

Though Ghana＇s crop yield growth rate was at 17%, 5% of every 1.2 million Ghanaians have insufficient and limited access to nutritious food. Climate change and climate variability have enormously affected the state of agricultural productivity and hence could result in food insecurity. As many ongoing projects use Boolean suitability analysis, land use planning, management recommendations sores, it still remains inadequate to support rural resource poor farmers. This then, is affecting livelihood and agricultural productivity. In this paper, a geostatistical quantitative method to support a geographic information system （GIS） based on multi-criteria decision support system （GMCDSS） for an enhanced land suitability assessment （LSA） and landuse planning （LP） was devised. Project findings indicated that, recommended farm inputs could be estimated and applied accordingly at farm plot levels Soil amendment indicators （e.g., 1.0 t/ha lime ＋ 1.0 t/ha gypsum was estimated for liming） was quantified and currently, farmers can save money in soil fertility management. It has shown that, instead of applying 5.0 t/ha poultry manure （PM） or five bags of N-P-K fertilizer （rate of 15： 15： 15 N-P2O5-K2O/ha） ＋ two bags of sulphate of ammonia （SA）, a farmer may apply 2.0 t/ha PM ＋ two bags 15：15：15 N-P2O5-K2O/ha ＋ one bag of SA. GMCDSS assessment has proved to be fundamental in： （1） urban planning; （2） ensuring food security; （3） poverty reduction and interventions to the effects of climate change and climate variability.

Novel Approach of Adjustment Theory Based on ANN Backpropagation

For a long time,the observations’adjustment concepts are doing based on the principle of Least Squares(LS),which so far,is the most popular technique that is widely used for such purposes.In the current study,the author introduces a new vision of the measurements’adjustment that depends on the principle of the artificial neural network backpropagation(ANNB).However,the novel approach of the adjustment in the current study is based upon the principle of the measurement’s precision,which will be represented through the value of the variance(σ^(2)).Thus,the determination of the required residuals for the adjustment procedure can be derived from the variances of observations and the value of geometrical closure error.The evaluation of the proposed method of adjustment ANNB is done according to the parametric method of LS adjustment for two selected cases of observations,representing the equal and non-equal precision observations.The obtained results of adjustment using the new technique(ANNB)are fully agreed with the results of LS for the two evaluation cases.These results indicate good compatibility between the ANNB and the LS as two approaches for observations’adjustment.

Analysis of River Tributaries’ Streamflow Contribution Using WEAP Model: A Case of the Ngwerere and Kanakatampa Tributaries to the Chongwe River in Zambia

Ngwerere and Kanakatampa Streams are the main tributaries of the Chongwe River. The Ngwerere stream originates from the city of Lusaka and meanders through Lusaka City and Chongwe Town for an approximate distance of 41 km before joining into the upper part of Chongwe River. The Kanakatampa Stream is a tributary of the Chongwe River. It meanders from the Kanakatampa Area for approximately 52 km before discharging into the middle of the upper part of the Chongwe River. The Chongwe River Catchment which is a sub-catchment of the Zambezi Basin drew the attention of researchers and policymakers when the Chongwe River started drying up in the dry seasons causing a water crisis particularly in the downstream regions of the middle catchment. Therefore, it is important from the water resources management perspective, to assess the contribution of tributaries into the flows of the Chongwe River. Ngwerere and Kanakatampa streams are socially, economically, and environmentally important streams for the city of Lusaka and surrounding area. This study, therefore, concentrated on evaluating the flow contribution of the two streams to the Chongwe River using the Water Evaluation And Planning (WEAP) tool. The streamflow data (1970-2010) recorded at the Chongwe Great East Road Bridge gauging station were used in the WEAP embedded Parameter ESTimation (PEST) auto-calibration tool to calibrate (1970-1999) and validate (2000-2010) the model. The monthly streamflow model calibration and validation results were assessed using the correlation coefficient (CC), Coefficient of determination (R2), Nash-Sutcliffe Coefficient of Efficiency (NSE), and Percent bias (PBIAS). The model performance results achieved were PBIAS of 1.24%, CC = 0.81, R2 = 0.66 and NSE = 0.62 during the calibration period and a positive PBIAS of 2.94%, CC = 0.81, R2 = 0.67 and NSE = 0.62 during the validation period. The median of the flows (Q50) was obtained from the historical flow duration curves (FDCs) generated in averaged intervals of 10-year from 1970 to 2019. The results showed that on average, the Ngwerere and Kanakatampa Streams contribute 52.8% and 29.6% respectively, to the flow of the Chongwe River in the upper and middle Catchment. The results also showed that the contribution of the Ngwerere and Kanakatampa Streams to the Chongwe River discharge has been reducing historically at a rate of 0.65% per decade and 1.35% per decade respectively over a period of 50 years (1970-2019). Suggestions for sustainable management of the tributaries such as the Ngwerere and Kanakatampa Streams were provided in this study.

Coastal Risk Management in a Context of Climate Change: A Case Study of Kribi Town of the South Region of Cameroon

Coastal zones are attractive areas for human habitation. Even though these areas are often associated with high disaster risk. This study is with objective to assess the legal and policy frameworks aimed at mitigating the disasters and risks associated with coast line degradation in Kribi. A desk review of the different policy documents related to coast line management and disaster risks mitigation were analyzed. Stakeholders involved in this coastline management were also consulted. The results of the study revealed that two types of actors are involved in coastline management namely: state actors and non-state actors. There are different legal instruments aimed at managing coastline in Cameroon that range from International to National laws with Cameroon ratifying some of these conventions such as: the Ramsar convention;the Convention on the Protection of Wetlands of International Importance;the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). In conclusion, Cameroon has a political will, legal and institutional framework for coastal zone management. However, initiatives designed to promote integrated coastal zone management are facing challenges in its implementation. The reasons are due to the complexity of the institutional and legal framework for the implementation of these initiatives. It is therefore necessary to develop an integrated management strategy that takes into account the role of each institution and that clearly defines an effective mechanism for intervention and coordination between actors.

Frequency Features Based Fuzzy System for Rotating Machinery Vibration Analysis Using Smartphones Low-Cost MEMS Sensors

Smart devices have become an important entity for many applications in daily life activities. These devices have witnessed a rapid improvement in its technology to fulfill the increasingly diverse usage demands. In the meanwhile, rotating machinery vibration analysis based on low-cost sensors has gained a considerable attraction over the last few years. For a long time, the vibration analysis of machines has been accepted as an effective solution to detect and prevent failures in complex systems to avoid the sudden malfunction. The objective of this work is to use MEMS accelerometer measurements to monitor the different level of vibration of a machine. This work presents a new technique for rotating machinery vibration analysis. It uses Fast Fourier Transformation as a feature extraction algorithm and Fuzzy Logic System (FLS) as the classifier algorithm. A smartphone accelerometer is used to collect the data from the vibrating machine. The performance of the proposed technique is tested using data from different vibration resources at a different speed of operations. The results are discussed to illustrate the various vibration levels.

Local Geoid Model Generation Using the Geometrical Approach

The global navigation satellite systems(GNSS)provide an accurate three-dimensional positioning including the geodetic(ellipsoidal)height(h),which is,in most cases,must be transformed to the local/regional orthometric height(H)to have physically the desired meaning of the elevation above the national vertical datum(e.g.,MSL(Mean Sea Level)).Usually,the local orthometric heights are determined based on the value of geoid undulation(N),which is obtained by methods of gravimetrical observations or derived by methods of interpolation utilizing the local geoid models(LGM).The current paper highlights one of the methods of generating LGM that is based on the geometrical relationship between the global datum WGS84 and the Iraqi datum Karbala 1979.The DGPS(Differential GPS)method is used to get the geodetic coordinates of about 97 selected points to cover the experimental area,within the boundaries of Erbil municipality,which has been partitioned into four parts.Therefore,four LGM were generated individually for each one of the four parts with an estimated uncertainty equal to±0.076 m.

Assessing Growth Parameters from Culm Cuttings of Bambusa vulgaris at the University of Dschang Botanic Garden, West Region of Cameroon: Implications for the Bamboo Resource Base and Rural Livelihoods

Dwindling supplies of bamboo resources and the increase in the demand for bamboo have led to the need for better propagation techniques. This is the only way to ensure the sustainability of the bamboo resource base and improve livelihoods. Thus, this study was carried out to examine the different growth parameters of culm cuttings of Bambusa vulgaris in propagation beds with a substrate consisting of dark soil, manure (compost) and sand in a ratio of 1:1:1. Data on different growth parameters was collected on a daily basis over a three week period and analyzed using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. It was found that the different growth parameters (diameter, height, leaves and sheaths) of culm cuttings of B. vulgaris evolved in like manner in three propagation beds. Descriptive statistics for growth parameters of culm cuttings of B. vulgaris showed little or no differences across three shelter/propagation beds (shelter bed 1, shelter bed 2 and shelter bed 3) with 1.4675 ± 1.6172 cm, 93 ± 112 cm, 22 ± 30 leaves, and 4 ± 6 sheaths being the mean diameter, height, number of leaves and number of sheaths for all three propagation beds, respectively. ANOVA test showed no statistically significant variation (p > 0.05) between growth parameters of culm cuttings of B. vulgaris across the three propagation beds, implying that the different growth parameters were relatively similar. Pearson correlation showed the existence of direct and inverse relationships between the different growth parameters of culm cuttings of bamboo. The existence of these direct and inverse relationships could be attributed to the rapid growth rate of bamboo, the substrate used, and the species of bamboo used (B. vulgaris). The study recommends more large-scale propagation projects of this bamboo species in order to ensure the sustainability of the bamboo resource base and improve livelihoods of bamboo dependent rural communities.