Anti-inflammatory intestinal activity of Combretum duarteanum Cambess. in trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis model

AIM To evaluate the anti-inflammatory intestinal effect of the ethanolic extract(EtO HE) and hexane phase(HexP) obtained from the leaves of Combretum duarteanum(Cd).METHODS Inflammatory bowel disease was induced using trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid in acute and relapsed ulcerative colitis in rat models. Damage scores, and biochemical, histological and immunohistochemical parameters were evaluated. RESULTS Both Cd-Et OHE and Cd-Hex P caused significant reductions in macroscopic lesion scores and ulcerative l e sionareas. The vegetable samples inhibited myeloperoxidase increase, as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β. Anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 also increased in animals treated with the tested plant samples. The anti-inflammatory intestinal effect is related to decreased expression of cyclooxygenase-2, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and an increase in superoxide dismutase. CONCLUSION The data indicate anti-inflammatory intestinal activity. The effects may also involve participation of the antioxidant system and principal cytokines relating to inflammatory bowel disease.

Characterization of Allele Diversity in a Microsatellite Locus: A Registry for Solenopsis invicta

The genus Solenopsis includes more than 100 species in the New World. When introduced, some species cause serious harm to the native wildlife and agriculture. Two forms of social organization are known in the genus, namely, monogyne and polygyne. Here, we present the genetic profile of a Solenopsis invicta Buren 1972 colony recorded in the central region of the city of São Paulo, São Paulo state, Brazil (23°33'37.18"S;46°42'48.66"W) to describe allele diversity. Eight microsatellite loci were used for the analysis of 30 worker ants. The results show the presence of seven alleles genotyped at the same microsatellite locus. Because this is an unusual finding, all of the alleles were sequenced, and surprisingly, an eighth allele was identified. These data suggest that the intracolonial genetic profile of fire ants must be investigated more frequently because there may be unexpected, albeit unknown, genetic patterns for S. invicta that can help inform better control and management programs.

Field and Laboratory Observations on Predation and Prey Selectivity of the Scyphomedusa Chrysaora cf.caliparea in Southeast Indian Waters

Chrysaora cf.caliparea,one of the most abundant medusae species in India,seems to be an important predator in the coastal waters of Bay of Bengal.The ability of Chrysaora cf.caliparea to feed at maximum rate in high prey concentrations implies that this jellyfish can efficiently exploit dense prey patches,at least for a short period.This study presents preliminary information regarding digestion and feeding rate upon copepods in a warm water environment.The ingestion rate of the average-sized medusae Chrysaora cf.caliparea is well balanced in nature,which in turn implies that this jellyfish is tuned for optimal utilization of available prey resources.Comparison with earlier research indicates that prey escape speed is one important factor governing which prey will be captured.A full understanding of predation mechanics awaits further investigation of both predator and prey behavior.However,because of the scarcity of long-term quantitative population data most insights have to be made indirectly.Nevertheless,low abun-dance of Chrysaora cf.caliparea in the water column during summer (May 2007) and the overall annual abundance seem not to con-siderably affect the zooplankton population,especially copepods.The present work contributes to the knowledge of prey-predator relationship of the forgotten fauna in Indian waters,which is especially crucial for understanding the process of ecological recovery of coastal water environment.

纳特竖蟾(无尾目:滑背蟾科)的细胞遗传、与相关属物种的核型相似性并兼论其分类地位(英文)

本文报道纳特竖蟾(Eupemphix nattereri Steindachner,1863)巴西3个产地标本的核型,均为2n=22,由1对端部和10对中或亚中部着丝点染色体组成。仅一对NORs位于No.11染色体对长臂端部,而其位置有别于常见的具有标志性意义的近着丝点位置。该NORs的位置为rDNA为探针的荧光原位杂交(FISH)所确认。各染色体对中,着丝点C-带明显,插入或端带偶见。某些标本的No.8同源染色体对间C-带的大小随异染色质化的程度不同而变化。居于较小的实验标本量,这种在3个产地的雌或雄性标本之一中观察到的C-带异型现象可能为种下细胞地理学变异,亦或为细胞学意义的性染体分化。3产地之一的标本核型的No.11着丝点C-带异染色质化的程度较高。CMA3染色检测到部分GC-rich区域,DAPI染色未显示任何AT-rich区。成功获得BrdU复制带,并将其与滑背蟾类动物(leiuperid)中近缘属及物种进行对比分析。比较结果表明,纳特竖蟾的核型与斑符泡蟾种组(Physalaemus signifergroup)难以相互区别,而与肿肋蟾属(Pleurodema Tschudi,1838)极为相似。核型数据支持形态学上将纳特竖蟾、二光肿肋蟾[Pleurodema diplolister(Peters,1870)]和短头肿肋蟾[P.brachyops(Cope,1869)

Seasonal testicular changes in Dendropsophus minutus Peters, 1872 (Anura, Hylidae)

The reproductive cycle in anurans may be either continuous or discontinuous.These differences may be connected to seasonal climate changes and/or to anthropic activity.Forty adult male individuals of the Dendropsophus minutus species were collected during one year,in the municipality of Chapada dos Guimarães(Mato Grosso,Brazil).The testicles were studied under light and transmission electron microscopy.No variations were observed when the diameter of the seminiferous tubules and the thickness of the interstitial tissue were studied.However,changes in spermatogenesis were conspicuous and indicated that the reproductive cycle of D.minutus in Chapada dos Guimarães is discontinuous and seems related to variations in air temperature and rainfall.

Pesticide Influence on the Desmid Flora of a Reservoir in an Agricultural Region at Campo Verde, Mato Grosso, Brazil

The objective of the research was to investigate the influence of pesticides on the desmid flora. Five series of samples were taken between July 5, 2005, and April 6, 2006, for analysis of pesticide content and algal community structure in the Sao Lourenco River springs on the Pirassununga Ranch, Campo Verde, Mato Grosso. The greatest amounts of pesticides were detected in July, when the abundance of algae was also greatest. Positive correlations were determined between the concentrations of endosulfan (r = 0.94;p = 0.051), cyhalothrin (r = 0.96;p = 0.037) and endrin (r = 0.96;p = 0.037) and the biomass of desmids. Insecticides, such as endosulfan, inhibit the activity of ATPase, contributing considerably to the mortality of the biota, since ATP is of fundamental importance in the energy metabolism of all organisms. This suggests that the pesticides promote algal growth both by removing the small herbivores that feed on the algae and increasing the release of inorganic nutrients from decomposing animals in the water. Algae were least abundance in January, possibly due to the presence of the herbicide atrazine (r = -0.63;p > 0.05).

Sorafenib after Arterial Chemoembolization in Child-Pugh A and B Cirrhotic Patients with Intermediate Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Retrospective Analysis

Introduction: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a leading cause of mortality among cirrhotic patients, and current guidelines recommend single-treatment modalities according to patient and liver disease classifications. New studies have shown promising results from combining locoregional and systemic treatments, but most of them were limited to Child-Pugh A patients due to toxicity concerns. Aim: The objective of this study was to analyze survival rates of Child-Pugh A and B patients with intermediate HCC tumors treated with transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) followed by full-dose sorafenib usage. Material and methods: a retrospective analysis of 37 cirrhotic patients (Child-Pugh A and B rates = 23/14) treated with TACE and TACE followed by sorafenib usage (17 and 20 patients, respectively). Results: The mean survival was 379 days in the combined treatment group and 151 days in the single-treatment group (p = 0.007). There were no differences in survival according to the Child-Pugh classification. Conclusions: sorafenib after TACE can be an option for selected cirrhotic patients with intermediate HCC tumors if this combined approach is cautiously performed on an individualized schedule. Our results suggest that the Child-Pugh classification should not be a limitation to this combined treatment.

Reactions with Aminobenzoic Acids via Diazonium Salts Open New Routes to Bio-Derived Aromatics

Aromatics have a broad application in our everyday life ranging from plastics, coatings and fibres, to food and pharmaceuticals. To date the bulk of these aromatics is derived from naphtha-based pet-rochemistry. However, recent progress in the fermentative production of metabolites using renew-able resources and engineered microbes has enabled the production of bio-precursors, such as 4-amino benzoic acid (pABA) and 2-amino benzoic acid (oABA). In this work we explored the feasibility of Sandmeyer reactions for the conversion of pABA to terephthalic and oABA salicylic acid, providing two very important platform chemicals for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. We could demonstrate that both acids can be obtained from the amino benzoic acids derived from the shikimate pathway in microbes and plants. Good conversions could be achieved using Sandmeyer reactions at mild conditions with biodegradable reagents and without organic solvents.

The Potential Role of Environment in Structuring the Microbiota of <i>Camponotus</i>across Parts of the Body

Several studies have attempted to understand what may influence the bacterial community of a host, but studies examining whether different bacterial species are found in different parts of the body of insects are limited. In the present study, we address the following questions: 1) How are bacterial communities distributed across different parts of the body (head, mesosoma, gaster) of Camponotus and 2) Is the diversity found explained by the environment in which these ants were collected? Our results were able to differentiate the bacterial communities present in the different parts of the body and can be explained in the following way: each part of the body has unique organs with different functions;and the complex proventriculum of Camponotus may be acting as a filter and structuring the bacterial community found in the gaster. In addition, an unexpected finding of the present study was the high diversity found associated with the head and mesosoma, and our findings were able to confirm that this diversity is associated with the environment where the ants were collected. Knowing more about the factors that can influence bacterial communities may reveal more about the importance of these associations in nature.

Identification,Structure Analyses and Expression Pattern of the ERF Transcription Factor Family in Coffea arabica

Members of the ERF Family of Transcription Factors play an important role in plant development and gene expression that regulates responses to biotic and abiotic stress.This work identified 36 ERF family genes in Coffea arabica within the AP2/ERF full domain,using the EST-based genomic resource of the Brazilian Coffee Genome Project.The ERF family genes were classified into nine of the ten existing groups through phylogenetic analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences and comparison with the sequences of the ERF family genes in Arabidopsis.In addition to the AP2 domain,other conserved domains were identified,typical of members of each group.The in silico analysis and expression profiling showed high levels of expression for libraries derived from tissues of fruits,leaves and flowers as well as for libraries subjected to water stress.These results suggest the participation of the ERF family genes of C.arabica in distinct biological functions,such as control of development,maturation,and responses to water stress.The results of this work imply in the selection of promising genes for further functional characterizations that will provide a better understanding of the complex regulatory networks related to plant development and responses to stress,opening up opportunities for coffee breeding programs.

The Biogeographic Network of Birds in the Brazilian Cerrado May Guide Conservation Efforts

The Brazilian Cerrado,characterized by grasslands,savannahs and riverine forests,is a biodiversity hotspot,threatened by the expansion of the agricultural frontier,and therefore,needs effective conservation actions.At the national level,the Cerrado core-region has received more conservation efforts than the marginal(non-core)areas,being considered more biodiverse.However,many marginal areas are also home to high species richness and endemism.Birds represent a highly diverse and widely distributed biological group,whose variety of functions gives them important roles in the maintenance of ecosystem services.In this study the authors analysed the distribution patterns of bird biodiversity in the Brazilian Cerrado and verified whether a separation into core and marginal Cerrado zones would make sense for birds’distribution,as this is an important issue concerning resources allocation for biodiversity conservation.The authors developed a biogeographic network analysis considering 42 sites with savannah vegetation distributed throughout the country and built two presence-absence matrices for birds-with and without species typical of the woodland Cerrado and forest physiognomies-and generated two biogeographic networks.The network without woodland/forest bird species showed no modularity,whereas the complete network produced three modules:Northwest,Centre-South and Centre-North.Network modularity was mainly determined by forest/woodland bird species.The Northwest region was richer and had a greater number of regional species compared to the other two modules;lower richness of bird species was found in the Centre-South region,which had more widespread species.The biogeographic pattern for the Cerrado birds perceived in this study did not evidence a clear dichotomy between core versus marginal regions.Therefore,the same conservation effort should be implemented throughout the Cerrado.

Leukotriene-A4-Hydrolase and Basic Aminopeptidase Activities Are Related with Collagen-Induced Arthritis in a Compartment-Dependent Manner

Objective: Previous study demonstrated the involvement of basic aminopeptidase (APB) activity in the development of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). Two zinc dependent metalloenzymes (EC 3.4.11.6 and EC 3.3.2.6) are known to exhibit concomitantly APB and leukotriene-A4-hydrolase (LT-A4-H) activities. Influence of the interrelationship between both activities on arthritic processes, however, is presently uncertain. This study aimed to compare these activities in CIA. Methods: CIA was induced in rats and arthritis was assessed macroscopically. Ultracentrifugation was used to separate soluble (S) and solubilized membrane-bound (M) fractions from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and synovial tissue (ST). Enzyme immunoassay was used to measure LT-A4-H activity, and Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction was used for evaluating EC 3.4.11.6 and EC 3.3.2.6 gene expressions. Results: The existence of genes for EC 3.3.2.6 and EC 3.4.11.6 was demonstrated in the ST. Compared with control, LT-A4-H activity increased in synovial fluid (SF) and in S-PBMCs of CIA-arthritic and CIA-resistant and in M-ST of CIA-resistant, while it decreased in M-PBMCs of CIA-arthritic and CIA-resistant. In all these locations APB activity remained unchanged or inversely correlated with LT-A4-H activity. Conclusions: LT-A4-H and APB activities in joint-related samples are associated, for the first time, with EC 3.3.2.6 and EC 3.4.11.6 genes, exhibiting a compartment-dependent differential modulation of their specificity, efficiency and/or affinity or an inverse concurrent pattern. Changes in LT-A4-H activity have implications for development or resistance to arthritis in CIA model with a potential to be a diagnostic tool.

Ca^(2+) binding to the C_(2)E domain of otoferlin is required for hair cell exocytosis and hearing

Dear Editor,Afferent synapses of cochlear inner hair cells(IHCs)employ a unique molecular machinery(see extended background in Supplementary Materials).Otoferlin is a key player in this machinery and its defects cause human auditory synaptopathy(Moser and Starr,2016).Otoferlin,a tail-anchored(Vogl et al.,2016)multi-C_(2)-domain protein(Fig.1Ai)specific to hair cells(Roux et al.,2006),is a member of the ferlin protein family involved in membrane trafficking and repair that are of major disease relevance(Pangršičet al.,2012),also see Supplementary Materials.Otoferlin is distributed broadly within IHCs(Fig.2Ai-Aiii;Pangrsic et al.,2010;Roux et al.,2006).

Hybridization despite elaborate courtship behavior and female choice in Neotropical tree frogs

The mechanisms of hybridization can be elucidated by analyzing genotypes as well as phenotypes that could act as premating barriers,as the reproductive interactions among heterospecifics can alter the evolutionary history of species.In frogs,hybrids typically occur among species that reproduce explosively(in dense aggregations)with few opportunities for mate selection but are rare in species with elaborate courtship behaviors that may prevent erroneous mating.Using 21 microsatellite markers,we examined hybridization in the prolonged-breeding tree frogs Bokermannohyla ibitiguara and B.sazimai sampled within a contact zone in the Brazilian savanna(72 tadpoles;74 adults).We also compared acoustic and morphological data.We confirmed both parental species genetically;STRUCTURE results confirmed 14 hybrids,11 of which were second-generation according to NEWHYBRIDS,all with intermediate values of genetic dissimilarities compared to the parentals.Morphological and acoustic analyses revealed that hybrids showed variable but not necessarily intermediate phenotypes.Moreover,2 hybrids exhibited call types different from parentals.The reproduction of B.ibitiguara involves territorial and aggressive males,elaborate courtships with acoustic and tactile stimuli,choosy females,and opportunistic strategies.Our study uncovers a rare case of viable hybridization among closely related frogs with such a combination of complex courtship behaviors and mate choice.We discuss the likely directionality and mechanisms behind this phenomenon,and highlight the importance of investigating hybridization even in species that show elaborate reproduction and female choice to advance our understanding of animal diversification.

Brazilian payment for environmental services programs emphasize water-related services

Based on"user pays"and"provider gets"principles,the Payment for Environmental Services(PES)consists of providing economic incentives or compensation for land users who adopt activities that promote ecosystem services.These PES initiatives have grown rapidly in Brazil over the last few decades,however,studies that address the panorama of these programs in the country are still scarce,regional,or outdated.Here,we investigate the PES overview in Brazil through interviews and an extensive literature review.We found in total 80 PES programs implemented in Brazil,of which 14 were closed.The pro-grams are poorly distributed across the country,mostly concentrated in the Atlantic Forest(56.25%)and Savanna(36.25%)biomes,in Southeastern Brazil.The majority of programs primarily prioritize improving water quality and quantity.Therefore,reforestation,protection of native vegetation,and soil and water conservation are their main proposed practices.The positive impacts of Brazil's PES experi-ences are evident;while the lack of transparency and monitoring,and poor spatial and financial dis-tribution are still major limitations.We conclude that if correctly implemented,PES schemes offer a path to reconcile environmental conservation with agricultural production in Brazil.

Reallocation of foliicolous species of the genus Strigula into six genera(lichenized Ascomycota,Dothideomycetes,Strigulaceae)

Strigula sensu lato has been previously defined based on phenotype characters as a rather broad genus including tropical to temperate species growing on a wide array of substrata.In this study,based on a multilocus phylogenetic approach,we show that foliicolous species form six well-delimited clades that correlate with diagnostic phenotype features,including thallus morphology,carbonization of the involucrellum and excipulum,ascospore dimensions,and type of macroconidia.Given the topology,with five of the six clades emerging on long stem branches,and the strong phenotypical differentiation between the clades,we recognize these at the genus level,making mostly use of previously established genus names.Four genera,namely Phylloporis,Puiggariella,Raciborskiella,and Racoplaca,are resurrected for the S.phyllogena,S.nemathora,S.janeirensis,and S.subtilissima groups,respectively,whereas one new genus,Serusiauxiella gen.nov.,is introduced for a novel lineage with peculiar macroconidia.The only sequenced non-foliicolous species,S.jamesii,is not closely related to these six foliicolous lineages but clusters with Flavobathelium and Phyllobathelium,revealing it as an additional undescribed genus-level lineage being treated elsewhere.Within the new genus Serusiauxiella,three new species are described:Serusiauxiella filifera sp.nov.,S.flagellata sp.nov.,and S.sinensis sp.nov.In addition,ten new combinations are proposed:Phylloporis austropunctata comb.nov.,P.radiata comb.nov.,P.vulgaris comb.nov.,Puiggariella confluens comb.et stat.nov.,P.nemathora comb.nov.,P.nigrocincta comb.nov.,Racoplaca maculata comb.nov.,R.melanobapha comb.nov.,R.transversoundulata,and R.tremens comb.nov.We also report on a peculiar,previously unrecognized growth behaviour of the macroconidial appendages in Strigula s.lat.

Habitat specialization and phylogenetic structure of tree species in a coastal Brazilian white-sand forest

Aims The coastal Brazilian rainforest on white-sand(restinga)ranks among the most fragmented forest types in the tropics,owing to both the patchy distribution of sandy soils and widespread coastal development activities.Here we study the environmental and evolutionary determinants of a forest tree assemblage at a single restinga forest in Southeastern Brazil.We also explore the ability of competing hypotheses to explain the maintenance of species diversity in this forest type,which includes contrasting extremes of edaphic conditions associated with flooding stress.Methods The study was conducted in a white-sand forest permanent plot of 10.24 ha on the coastal plain of Southeastern Brazil.This plot was divided into 256 quadrats of 20×20 m,which were classified into two main edaphic habitats(flooded and drained).Trees with a diameter≥1 cm at breast height were identified.We assembled DNA sequence data for each of the 116 morphospecies recognized using two chloroplast markers(rbcL and matK).A phylogenetic tree was obtained using the maximum likelihood method,and a phylogenetic distance matrix was produced from an ultrametric tree.We analyzed similarity in floristic composition and structure between habitats and related them to cross-plot distances using permutation procedures.Null model torus shift simulations were performed to obtain a statistical significance level for habitat association for each species.The phylogenetic structure for the two habitats and for each 20×20 m quadrat was calculated using the mean phylogenetic distance weighted by species abundance and checked for significance using the standardized effect size generated by 5000 randomizations of phylogenetic tip labels.Important Findings Our results indicate that partitioning among edaphic habitats is important for explaining species distributions and coexistence in restinga forests.Species distributions within the plot were found to be non-random:there was greater floristic similarity within than between habitats,and>40%of the more abundant species were positively or negatively associated with at least one habitat.Patterns of habitat association were not independent of phylogenetic relatedness:the community was overdispersed with respect to space and habitat type.Closely related species tended to occur in different habitats,while neighboring trees tended to belong to more distantly related species.We conclude that habitat specialization is important for the coexistence of species in restinga forests and that habitat heterogeneity is therefore an essential factor in explaining the maintenance of diversity of this unique but fragile and threatened type of forest.

Delving into the variations in tree species composition and richness across south american subtropical atlantic and Pampean forests

Aims We analyse here the variations in species composition and richness and the geographic ranges of the tree species occurring in south american subtropical atlantic and Pampean forests.our goals were to assess(i)the floristic consistency of usual classifications based on vegetation physiognomy,climate and elevation;(ii)the leading role of temperature-related variables on the variations in species composition and richness;(iii)the predominance of species with tropical-subtropical ranges,possibly as a result of forest expansion over grasslands after the last glacial maximum(LGM);(iv)the restriction of most subtropical endemics to stressful habitats as a possible result of past forest refuges during the LGM.Methods The region was defined by the Tropic of Capricorn to the north,the rio de la Plata to the south,the atlantic shoreline to the east and the catchment areas of the upper Paranáand uruguay rivers to the west.multivariate analyses,multiple regression modelling and variance partition analyses were performed on a database containing 63994 occurrence records of 1555 tree species in 491 forest sites and 48 environmental variables.all species were also classified according to their known geographic range.Important Findingsa main differentiation in species composition and richness was observed between the eastern windward coastlands(rain and cloud forests)and western leeward hinterlands(Araucaria and semi-decid-uous forests).Pre-defined forest types on both sides were consistent with variations in tree species composition,which were significantly related to both environmental variables and spatial proximity,with extremes of low temperature playing a chief role.Tree species rich-ness declined substantially towards the south and also from rain to seasonal forests and towards the highland summits and sandy shores.species richness was significantly correlated with both minimum temperature and actual evapotranspiration.about 91%of the subtropical flora is shared with the much richer tropical flora,prob-ably extracting species that can cope with frost outbreaks.The 145 subtropical endemics were not concentrated in harsher habitats.

Hematological parameters of a Neotropical wild frog population,with a phylogenetic perspective on blood cell composition in Anura

Hematological parameters can provide key information to an animal health status.However,this information is usually hard to obtain.Here,we described the hematological parameters of Leptodactylus podicipinus in the Brazilian Pantanal.We measured red blood cell morphometrics,erythrogram,and leukogram.We also tested for phylogenetic signal in the erythrogram and leukogram of 48 frog species from 15 families,testing if body size explains their variation.Lymphocytes were the most abundant leukocytes(>60%)in L.podicipinus,followed by neutrophils(∼10%).Given that L.podicipinus is an abundant and widely distributed species in central Brazil,knowing its hematological pattern can help establish a baseline and improve its use as a bioindicator of environmental degradation.Mean corpuscular hemoglobin and value contributed more to the phylomorphospace of erythrogram,in which Leptodactylus spp.and Hypsiboas raniceps had lower values of these variables,whereas Bufotes viridis and Hyla arborea had high values.The phylogenetic signal was spread throughout the dimensions of the leukogram phylomorphospace.The variables that most contributed to it were total leukocytes counts,lymphocytes,and neutrophils.We also found a moderate phylogenetic signal for both the erythrogram and leukogram.Accordingly,body size accounted for a low proportion of variation in both the leukogram(4.7%)and erythrogram(0.57%).By applying phylogenetic comparative methods to hematological parameters,our results add a new perspective on the evolution of blood cell physiology in frogs.

Short-and long-term effects of an extreme case of autotomy:does“tail”loss and subsequent constipation decrease the locomotor performance of male and female scorpions?

In many taxa,individuals voluntarily detach a body part as a form to increase their chances of escaping predation.This defense mechanism,known as autotomy,has several consequences,such as changes in locomotor performance that may affectfitness.Scorpions of the genus Ananteris autotomize the“tail”,which in fact corresponds to the last abdominal segments.After autotomy,individuals lose nearly 25%of their body mass and the last portion of the digestive tract,including the anus,which prevents defecation and leads to constipation,because regeneration does not occur.Here,we experimentally investigated the short-and long-term effects of tail loss on the locomotor performance of Ananteris balzani.In a short-term experiment,the maximum running speed(MRS)of males and females did not change after autotomy.Moreover,the relative mass of the lost tail did not affect the change in MRS after autotomy.In a long-term experiment,autotomy had a negative effect on the MRS of males,but not of females.Autotomized over-fed individuals suffered from severe constipation but were not slower than autotomized normally fed individuals.In conclusion,tail loss has no immediate effect on the locomotor performance of scorpions.The long-term decrease in the locomotor performance of autotomized males may impair mate searching.However,because death by constipation takes several months,males have a long time tofind mates and reproduce.Thus,the prolonged period between autotomy and death by constipation is crucial for understanding the evolution of one of the most extreme cases of autotomy in nature.