Insights on the molecular mechanism of neuroprotection exerted by edible bird’s nest and its bioactive constituents

Neurodegenerative diseases are often associated with the accumulation of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation.Edible bird’s nest(EBN)is a glycoprotein(sialylated mucin glycopeptides)found to be beneficial against neurodegenerative diseases.Antioxidative,anti-inflammatory,and anti-apoptotic properties of EBN in preserving neuronal cells were widely researched using in vitro and in vivo models.Functional effects of EBN are often linked to its great number of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory glycopeptides.Bioactive compounds in EBN,especially sialic acid,add value to neurotrophic potential of EBN and contribute to neuronal repair and protection.Various studies reporting the neuroprotective effects of EBN,their molecular mechanisms,and neuroactive composition were gathered in this review to provide better insights on the neuroprotective effects of EBN.

Biostratigraphy versus isotope geochronology: Testing the Urals island arc model

Formation of the Urals volcanic-hosted massive sulphide(VHMS) deposits is considered to be related with the intra-oceanic stage of island arc(s) development in the Upper Ordoviciane Middle Devonian based on the biostratigraphic record of ore-hosting sedimentary rocks. However, the direct Re-Os dating of four known VHMS systems in the Urals gives significantly younger Re-Os isochron ages ranging from355 ± 15 Ma up to 366 ± 2 Ma. To address this discrepancy, we performed SHRIMP U-Pb dating on zircons extracted from rhyodacites(Eifelian biostratigraphic age of 393 -388 Ma) from the footwall of the Alexandrinka VHMS deposit which has a Re-Os isochron age of sulphides of 355 ± 15 Ma.New ^(206) Pb/^(238) U mean age of 374 ± 3 Ma(MSWD ? 1.4 and probability ? 0.11) is considered to be the crystallisation age of the host volcanic rock. This age is ca. 15 Ma younger than the Eifelian(393 -388 Ma)biostratigraphic age and overlaps the Frasniane Famennian boundary(372 ± 2 Ma), characterised by the final stages of Magnitogorsk Arc e East European continent collision. Such an inconsistency with geochronological age may be due to a reburial of conodonts during resedimentation as a result of erosion of older rocks in younger sedimentary sequences.

A survey of zoonotic diseases in trade cattle slaughtered at Tanga city abattoir:a cause of public health concern

Objective:To estimate the prevalence of hydatidosis,cysticercosis,tuberculosis,leptospirosis,brucellosis and toxoplasmosis in slaughtered bovine stock(aged≥3 years)at Tanga city abattoir,Tanzania.Methods:Prevalence estimation of the five zoonotic diseases was undertaken through an active abattoir and sero-survey was carried out in Tanga city,during the period of January 2002and March 2004.Serum samples collected from a sub-sample(n=51)of the slaughter stock were serologically screened for antibodies against brucellosis,leptospirosis and toxoplasmosis using Rose Bengal plate test,microscopic agglutination test(for 5 serovars of Leptospira interrogans)and Eiken latex agglutination test,respectively.The same animals were tested for tuberculosis using the single intradermal tuberculin test.Results:Post mortem examination of 12 444 slaughter cattle(10 790 short horn zebu and 1 654 graded)over a period of twenty two months,showed a prevalence of 1.56%(194)for hydatidosis,1.49%(185)for cysticercosis and 0.32%(40)for tuberculosis.In all three zoonoses,a statistically significant difference in infection rates was noted between the short horn zebu and graded breeds(P<0.05).The overall seroprevalences of animals with brucellosis,toxoplasmosis and leptospirosis antibodies were found to be 12%,12%and 51%,respectively.The most common leptospiral antibodies detected were those against antigens of serovars Leptospira hardjo(29%),Leptospira tarassovi(18%),Leptospira bataviae(4%)and Leptospira pomona(0%).With regard to tuberculosis,10%(n=5)of the animals tested were classified as non-specific reactors or inconclusive.Conclusions:The study findings suggest that brucellosis,toxoplasmosis and leptospirosis are prevalent in Tanga and provide definitive evidence of slaughtered stock exposure to these zoonotic agents with concurrent public health consequences.

An abattoir survey of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia lesions in slaughtered cattle in selected districts in Northern Tanzania

Objective:To establish and estimate incidence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia(CBPP),using abattoir survey as a diagnostic tool in slaughtered cattle in Northern Tanzania.Methods:A total of 4460 cattle were slaughtered in five abattoirs in 3 northern zone regions(Arusha,Kilimanjaro and Tanga)during the period of January to May 2004.They were examined ante-mortem for‘pneumonia signs',and‘characteristic contagious bovine pleuropneumonia(CBPP)lung lesions'.Results:Forty-one(0.91%)of the slaughtered cattle,the majority of which were Tanzania short horn zebu,had gross lung lesions suggestive of CBPP.The prevalence of lesions was significantly(P<0.05)higher in Karatu abattoir compared to others.No animal was detected to have lesion in Bomang'ombe abattoir.The most observed pneumonic signs included labored breathing(90%),dry cough(57%)and mucopurulent nasal discharge(47%).The gross characteristic CBPP pathological lesion,frequently encountered was left lung lesion(47%),pinkish lung(71%)and pleural adhesion(98%).Epidemiological reports show that the CBPP reported outbreaks increased from 19 in 2002,65 in 2003 and 18 in 2004(January-March).The corresponding number of reported deaths increased from 137 in 2002,269 in 2003 and 77 in 2004(January-March).Conclusions:It's concluded from this study that CBPP is a problem in spite of the extensive awareness and vaccination campaigns.Nevertheless,a continued surveillance programme including routine checks of all cattle carcasses at the abattoir and subsequent epidemiological investigation of suspected cases are recommended.

Supplying System for Drinking Water to Small Rural Communities with Zero Greenhouse Gasses: Sixteen Years of Experiences in Mexico

In Chiapas highlands to southeast of Mexico, the scarcity of water is worrying, according to technical reports of the IPCC the runoff will less between 150 to 250 mm per year in the southeast of Mexico, this situation will increase the problems of water availability in Chiapas highlands in the future. For actually more of 18,160 small rural indigenous communities (SRIC) in Chiapas there is not drinking water. In order to contribute a given solution to scarcity of drinking water in the SRIC, The Autonomous University of Chiapas (UNACH in its Spanish acronym) and Mexican Institute of Water Technology (IMTA in its Spanish acronym) designed and constructed in 1999 the Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) in Yalentay municipality of Zinacantan in Chiapas, Mexico. The scientific and technical contributions of RWH are: The design guarantee the water quality for a prolonged time of storage avoiding the photosynthesis inside the system;Not emitted greenhouse gasses because it doesn’t need any kind of fossil fuels;Not produces anything kind of damage to the environment;It has to be inexpensive, using in its construction manpower and materials from de region;Store the maximum quantity of water in the minimum space. The RWH has increased the standard of living of the habitants from Yalentay and improving their health conditions.

Microbial quality and associated health risks of raw milk marketed in the Tanga region of Tanzania

Objective:To evaluate micmbial quality and associated health risks of raw milk marketed in the Tanga region of Tanzania.Methods:A microbial quality assessment of marketed raw milk was undertaken by evaluating 59 samples of milk from selling points(collecting centres =15),bicycle boys(12) and kiosks/restaurants(32) in Tanga city during April-May 2005.Quality and milkborne hazards were assessed using a combination of tests in order to quantify the occurrence of Brucellosis(milk ring test),Escherichia coli(E.coli) O157:H7(culture),the coliforra bacteria as well as standard plate count(SPC).Specific gravity(SG) determination was used as an indicator of adulteration.Results:The mean coliform plate count(c.f.u/mL) of milk handled by bicycle boys(4.2×10~6) was significantly higher than that handled by collecting centres(3.0×10~6) and kiosk/ restaurants(1.4× 10~6),respectively(P 【 0.05).Of the 59 milk samples collected,33(56%) were Brucella milk ring test(MRT)-positive and 78%and 17%of the samples graded satisfactorily based on SG and coliform plate counts as prescribed by East African Community standards for raw milk.There was no verocytotoxigenic E.coli(VTEC) O157:H7 in any of the milk samples collected and analysed during the present study.Conclusions:It can be concluded that raw market milk in the study area is of poor bacteriological quality and hazardous for human consumption. This highlights the need to implement good hygiene practices and effective monitoring from production through the delivery chain to the consumer.Further studies are needed for detection of toxins that are produced by E.coli,other pathogenic spore forming bacteria(Bacillus spp.and Clostridium spp.) and other harmful microorganisms.

Physical-Mathematical Foundations of the Penman Equation from the Perspective of the First Law of Thermodynamics and Energy Balance Theory

The evapotranspiration is indispensable for the planning and management of water resources in watersheds and for the design of important engineering projects. The accuracy of its estimation depends, among other things, on the proper determination of the date and frequency of irrigation. One of the most accurate equations for estimating the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) is the Penman-Monteith equation, which was derived from the Penman equation published in 1948, which in turn is based on the energy balance equation. In this paper we present the theoretical foundations of Penman’s equation from the perspective of the first law of thermodynamics and the theory of energy balance as a contribution for the students and engineers who use Penman’s or Penman-Monteith equations in a utilitarian way within the historical and theoretical framework of the origin of this equation.

Kp Pan Evaporation and ETo Monthly Maps Using Information of 60 Weather Observatories Included in the Climate Normals (1941-1970) from Mexico

The most precise equation in order to estimate the evapotranspiration (ET) of crops is the Penman-Monteith (PM). However, the PM equation needs specific data that, in the majority of Mexico’s irrigation districts, it is not available because there are few automated weather stations. For this reason, it is convenient to develop simple methods that allow to precise estimation of ET. A reliable way to estimate ET is by using the pan evaporation that, according to the revised literature, continues to be used nowadays. Investigators like to include its use in irrigation water management projects in various parts of the world. However, this method uses Kp from the FAO that is not calibrated in Mexico. The use of FAO Kp affects the precision of the results, since some variables like radiation, wind, temperature and relative humidity vary from place to place;therefore ET is under estimated or overestimated. This paper presents an original contribution across method to estimate “Kp pan evaporation and ETo monthly maps”, using information from 60 weather observatories included in The Climate Normals (1941-1970) from Mexico, based on the PM method and the class A pan evaporation. Once the Kp values were obtained from each weather observatory, the Kringing method was used. This way, by interpolating data of the triad “latitude, longitude and Kp” and “latitude, longitude and ET”, monthly normalized maps of Kp and ET were established for Mexico, except the upland areas (Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra Madre Oriental), as well as other highland zones above 2700 meters over sea level, for the highest observatory is located in Toluca, State of Mexico (key 14-0039), at 2680 m over sea level.

Hydrology and Estimation of Real Erosion in the Patria Nueva Micro-Basin for Five Return Periods

This paper will discuss the actual erosion estimation of the Patria Nueva micro basin in tons/ha/year (E), located in Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chiapas, Mexico. We used the universal soil loss equation (USLE), considered one of the best theoretical tools for planning and soil preservation in the USA and other countries. The actual erosion rates were estimated for 5, 20, 50, 100, and 500 years return periods (Rp), with elevated results due to high degrees of anthropogenic alteration of the micro-basin, especially in the last 50 years. High erosion rates generate the following problems: loss of soil, which is unfavorable for plant life, due to the soil being a non-renewable resource, the undermine can never renovate, the hydraulic area in the main channel reduces during the rainy season (when the river overflows). The sediment accumulates at the lower part of the micro-basin along with waste, garbage, and mud.

Climate Change Effects on Evapotranspiration in Mexico

In Mexico’s case, the scarcity of water in the north of the country is worrying, even more from the agricultural point of view because according to the results of general circulation models, a major impact due to global warming is expected in this region, and it will have important repercussions on the rural sector in the north of Mexico. According to [1] the results of the sensitivity analysis made in this study indicate that the most vulnerable zone is the north of Mexico, wherein the increase of evapotraspiration (ET) is greater in comparison to the rest of the country;up to 8% annual average for a +3°;C growth in mean annual temperature. Due to some limitations in this preliminary investigation (e.g., global temperature data was used without regionalizing it), it was decided to make more detailed studies to estimate the climate change effects on ET on a regional scale, using the downscaling method to adjust temperature data. In this study a new methodology to estimate the ET before climate change scenarios is introduced, which includes the selection of the Hargreaves-Samani method (HS), calibrated and compared against the Penman-Monteith ASCE method in various irrigation districts in the northern part of the country, obtaining ET estimations with a 93% precision. This procedure was applied to nine states in north Mexico: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila y Durango. The principal results are enunciated as follows: the ET variations between the contemporary scenario and the 2030 scenario are quite significant, according to the data of 160 meteorological stations;for temperature variations between 0.1°;C to 0.45°;C the corresponding ET fluctuation goes from 2% in the current scenario to 7% in the 2030 scenario. These obtained percentages are greater than the ones expected to happen for the precision of the method. It is important to note that a 7% rise of ET (related to a regional temperature increase of approximately one degree) would represent in practice having more millions of m3 of water in dams to satisfy the water demand of crops.

Detecting Climate Change in Using Extreme Data from Two Surface Weather Stations: Case Study Valle of Comitan and La Esperanza, Chiapas, Mexico

The study area is located between the cities of Comitan (16°10'43"N and 92°04'20''W) a city with 150,000 inhabitants and La Esperanza (16°9'15''N and 91°52'5''W) a town with 3000 inhabitants. Both weather stations are 30 km from each other in the Chiapas State, México. 54 years of daily records of the series of maximum (tmax) and minimum temperatures (tmin) of the weather station 07205 Comitan that is on top of a house and 30 years of daily records of the weather station 07374 La Esperanza were analyzed. The objective is to analyze the evidence of climate change in the Comitan valley. 2.07% and 19.04% of missing data were filled, respectively, with the WS method. In order to verify homogeneity three methods were used: Standard Normal Homogeneity Test (SNHT), the Von Neumann method and the Buishand method. The heterogeneous series were homogenized using climatol. The trends of tmax and tmin for both weather stations were analyzed by simple linear regression, Sperman’s rho and Mann-Kendall tests. The Mann-Kendal test method confirmed the warming trend at the Comitan station for both variables with ZMK statistic values equal to 1.57 (statistically not significant) and 4.64 (statistically significant). However, for the Esperanza station, it determined a cooling trend for tmin and a slight non-significant warming for tmax with a ZMK statistic of -2.27 (statistically significant) and 1.16 (statistically not significant), for a significance level α = 0.05.

Structural architecture of Neoproterozoic rifting depression groups in the Tarim Basin and their formation dynamics

The Tarim Basin is the largest, oil-bearing, superimposed basin in the northwest of China. The evolution and tectonic properties of the initial Tarim Basin have been hotly disputed and remain enigmatic. The Neoproterozoic basin is covered by a vast desert and a huge-thickness of sedimentary strata, has experienced multiple tectonic movements, had a low signal to noise ratios(SNRs) of deep seismic reflection data, all of which have posed critical obstacles to research. We analysed four field outcrops, 18 wells distributed throughout the basin, 27 reprocessed seismic reflection profiles with higher SNRs across the basin and many ancillary local 2D and 3D profiles and aeromagnetic data. We found about 20 normal fault-controlled rifting depressions of the Cryogenian and Ediacaran scattered throughout the basin, which developed on the Precambrian metamorphic and crystalline basement. The structural framework is clearly different from that of the overlying Phanerozoic. The rifting depressions consist of mainly half grabens, symmetrical troughs and horst-grabens. From the northeast to southwest of the basin,they are divided into three rifting depression groups with the WNW, ENE, and NW-trends that are mainly controlled by normal faults. The maximum thicknesses of the strata are up to 4100 m. From the Cryogenian to Ediacaran, most of the main inherited faults to active and eventually ceased at the end of the Ediacaran or Early Cambrian, while subsidence centres appeared and migrated eastward along the faults. They revealed that the different parts of the Tarim continental block were in NNE-SSWoriented and NNW-SSE-oriented extensional paleo-stress fields(relative to the present) during the Neoproterozoic, and were accompanied by clockwise shearing. According to the analysis of the activities of syn-sedimentary faults, filling sediments,magmatic events, and coordination with aeromagnetic anomalies, the tectonic properties of the fault depressions are different and are primarily continental rifts or intra-continental fault-controlled basins. The rifting phases mainly occurred from 0.8–0.61 Ga.The formation of the rifting depression was associated with the initial opening of the South Altun-West Kunlun Ocean and the South Tianshan Ocean, which were located at the northern and southern margins of the Tarim Block, respectively, in response to the break-up of the Supercontinent Rodinia and the initial opening of the Proto-Tethys Ocean.

Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous tectonic switching in Liaodong Peninsula of the North China Craton and the implications for gold mineralisation

Constraining the processes of deformation during tectonic switching from compression to extension is difficult because of the scarcity or absence of associated sedimentary and magmatic rocks and weak metamorphism.The east margin of the eastern North China Craton experienced Early to Middle Jurassic compression and Early Cretaceous extension.However,the period of tectonic quiescence lasting~13 million years(between 153 and 140 Ma)during which this transition occurred is poorly understood.This paper reports the identification of small-scale N-S-trending thrust and sinistral strike-slip faults(TSS)and NWtrending thrust and dextral strike-slip faults(TDS)in the Tongyuanpu-Aiyang region,which is part of the northern Liaodong Peninsula.Calculation of the tectonic stress field using striations,fault planes and kinematics reveals a NW-SE-oriented maximum principal axis(σ1),and sub-horizontalσ2 andσ3.Assemblages of N-S-trending TSS and NW-trending TDS were arranged with right stepping and resulted in local uplift and erosion at the junctions between fault terminations,which partitioned the Early and Middle Jurassic basins into residual smaller volcanic-sedimentary basins.These basins were unconformably overlain by small Early Cretaceous volcanic-sedimentary basins,such as those at Tongyuanpu and Fangjiaweizi.Magmatic ages and the timing of basin formation constrain the initiation of tectonic switching to 156–153 Ma,and its termination to 140–139 Ma.We suggest that R-R’Riedel shears controlled the formation of the N-S-trending TSS and NW-trending TDS.The R-R’shears were produced by continued sinistral strike-slip and northward growth along the Bohai Bay segment of the Tan-Lu fault zone during the Late Jurassic to early Early Cretaceous,simultaneous with a gradual weakening in the tectonic stress field during a switch in the direction of subduction of the Palaeo-Pacific plate from NW-ward to NNW-ward.This tectonic switching might have promoted the dissolution of gold and migration of gold-bearing fluids.

Prevalence and spectrum of helminths in free-ranging African buffaloes(Syncerus caffer)in wildlife protected areas,Tanzania

Objective:To determine the prevalence and spectrum of helminths in free-ranging African buffaloes in Tanzania by a cross-sectional study.Methods:Faecal samples(n=123)from Arusha National Park and Ngorongoro Crater were examined for helminth eggs using sedimentation and floatation techniques during the period of March to June 2012.Results:Coprological examination revealed that 34.1%(n=42)of the buffaloes excreted nematodes and trematodes eggs and protozoan oocyst in their faces.The pattern of infection was either single or mixed.Single(52.4%)and concurrent infections with two,three,four and five parasites were recorded in 19.0%,11.9%,14.3%and 2.3%respectively of the cases.The nematode eggs encountered were those of Trichostrongylus sp.(20.3%),Oesophagostomum sp.(7.3%),Strongyle sp.(4.1%),Bunostomum sp.(4.1%),Ostertegia sp.(3.3%)and Toxocara sp.(2.4%).The trematode eggs encountered were those of Fasciola sp.(9.8%),Paramphistomum sp.(4.9%),Gastrothylax sp.(1.6%),Ornithobilharzia sp.(0.81%)and Fischoederius sp(0.81%).The protozoan oocyst recorded was that of Eimeria sp.(8.1%).Geographical location of buffaloes had significant influence on the prevalence of infection with Trichostrongylus(P=0.046)and Fasciola(P=0.001),and the mean prevalances in Arusha National Park are significantly higher than those in Ngorongoro Crater.Age had significant influence on infection with Fasciola(P=0.036),and juvenile recorded higher levels of infection than sub-adults.Health status,body condition score and sex-wise prevalence of helminths were not significant(P>0.05).Conclusions:This study indicates that helminths species are numerous and highly prevalent in the two protected areas and may be one of the contributing factors to lower buffalo productivity.

On dogs, people, and a rabies epidemic: results from a sociocultural study in Bali, Indonesia

Background:Previously free of rabies,Bali experienced an outbreak in 2008,which has since caused a large number of human fatalities.In response,both mass dog culling and vaccination have been implemented.In order to assess potential community-driven interventions for optimizing rabies control,we conducted a study exploring the relationship between dogs,rabies,and the Balinese community.The objectives of this study were to:i)understand the human-dog relationship in Bali;ii)explore local knowledge,attitudes,and practices(KAPs)relating to rabies;and iii)assess potential community-driven activities to optimize rabies control and surveillance.Methods:Conducted between February and June 2011,the study combined a questionnaire(n=300;CI=95%;error margin=5%)and focus group discussions(FGDs)in 10 villages in the Denpasar,Gianyar,and Karangasem regencies.The questionnaire included a Likert scale to assess community knowledge and attitudes.For the knowledge assessment,three points were given for a correct answer,while wrong answers and uncertain answers were given zero points.For the attitudes assessment,three points were given for a positive answer,two points for a neutral answer,and one point for a negative answer.Respondent knowledge was categorized as good(score>40),fair(score 20–40),or poor(score<20),based on a maximum total score 60.Respondent attitudes were categorized as positive(score>26),neutral(score 13–26),or negative(score<13),based on a maximum total score of 39.Mixed-gender FGDs in each sub-village(banjar)were conducted,each involving 7–15 participants to complement the questionnaire results.On a follow-up research trip in mid-2013,the data analysis was triangulated and validated using semi-structured interviews.Questionnaire data were analyzed descriptively using SPSS 17.0,while qualitative data from interviews and FGDs were analyzed manually according to accepted methods of coding and memo writing.The chi-square test was then used to analyze the statistical relationships between knowledge and attitudes of the respondents.Results:Out of the total 300 respondents,most were predominantly male(82%),Hindu(99%),married(96%),older than 30 years of age(92%),and owned dogs(72%6).Dog ownership was motivated by culture,personal taste,and function,with dogs was being used as guards(85%)and companion animals(27%),and was sometimes related to religious or traditional obligations(2%).Relating to their culture and local beliefs,and eventually becoming their way of life,79%of respondents kept free-roaming dogs.with the rabies outbreak in Bali and Westerm breeds becoming more popular,more responsible dog ownership(leashing,confining,regular feeding)became more acceptable and changed community perceptions on keeping dogs,even though the sustainability of this practice cannot be gauged.In addition,the economic situation posed major problems in rural areas.The level of community knowledge about rabies and its associated control programs were generally fair and community attitudes were positive.However,community KAPs still need to be improved.A total of 74%respondents reported to have vaccinated their dogs in 2011,but only few were found to report rabid animals to livestock officers(12%)and a significant number believed that washing a bite wound was not important(62%).Moreover,free-roaming dog practices and discarding of unwanted female puppies still continue and possibly create difficulties for rabies elimination as these practices potentially increase the stray dog population.We identified three major sociocultural aspects with potential for community-driven interventions to optimize current rabies elimination efforts:integrating local notions of ahimsa(non-violence)into education campaigns,engaging communities through the local banjar sociopolitical system,and working with traditional legal structures to increase local compliance with rabies control.Conclusion:The human-dog relationship in Bali is multifaceted.Due to the uniqueness of the culture and the local beliefs,and encouraged by a socioeconomic aspect,a number of local practices were found to be constituting risk factors for continued rabies spread.Community knowledge and attitudes,which can consequently result in behavioral changes,needs to be improved across different genders,ages educational backgrounds,and roles in the commurnity,regardless of the individual village's experiences with rabies.Furthermore,community-driven activities based on sociocultural conditioning and community capacity at the banjar and village levels,such as public awareness activities,vaccination,dog registration,dog population management,and rapid response to dog bites,were identified as being able to complement the rabies control program in Bali.The program also needs recognition or acknowledgement from governments,especially local govemment as well as regular mentoring to improve and sustain community participation.