Phylogenetic pattern of alpine plants along latitude and longitude in Hengduan Mountains Region

To detect the horizontal pattern of phylogenetic structure shown by alpine plants, we measured phylogenetic structure using net related index(NRI) and net nearest taxon index(NTI), and analyzed the phylogenetic structure patterns of alpine plants along longitude, latitude and environmental gradients in the Hengduan Mountains Region(HDMR). Our results show that: 1) the phylogenetic structure tended to cluster with increasing latitude and longitude; 2) for NRI, latitude was closer related than longitude,while for NTI, longitude was closer related than latitude, though they both not significantly relate to NTI.The phylogenetic structure tended towards overdispersion in the southern HDMR, with good climate conditions of higher mean annual temperature and more mean annual precipitation. In contrast, with harsh climate conditions of lower mean annual temperature and less mean annual precipitation, the increasing environmental stress led to phylogenetic clustering in the northern HDMR. The results highlighted that in the alpine region of HDMR, environmental filters and geographical isolation had a great effect on the latitudinal and longitudinal alpine species distribution, respectively.

Phylogenetic analysis of Toxicodendron(Anacardiaceae) and its biogeographic implications on the evolution of north temperate and tropical intercontinental disjunctions

Toxicodendron is a genus in the Rhus complex of Anacardiaceae with a disjunct distribution between eastern Asia and North America, extending to southeastern Asia and the neotropics. Nuclear （internal transcribed spacer, external transcribed spacer, and NIA-i3） and chloroplast （ndhF and trnL-F） sequences were used to construct phylogenetic relationships of Toxicodendron. Phylogenetic analysis of these data strongly support Toxieodendron as a monophyletic group distinct from other genera of the Rhus complex, and the phylogeny does not fully corroborate classification at the sectional level. Two temperate disjunct lineages were detected, one from section Toxicodendron and the other between the eastern North American Toxicodendron vernix and the eastern Asian Toxicodendron vernieifluum. Their divergence times were estimated to be 13.46 （7.95-19.42） and 7.53 （2.76-12.86） mya, respectively. The disjunction between section Griffithii （taxa from warm temperate to tropical Asia） and Toxieodendron striatum （from the neotropics） was supported and their divergence time was estimated to be 20.84 （11.1 6-30.52） mya in the early Miocene. Our biogeographic results and the paleontological data support the Bering land bridge as the most likely route to explain the temperate disjunctions, yet the tropical disjunction in Toxicodendron seems to be best explained by the North Atlantic land bridge hypothesis.

Molecular phylogeny of Solms-laubachia(Brassicaceae) s.l.,based on multiple nuclear and plastid DNA sequences,and its biogeographic implications

The Hengduan Mountains region of south-west China is a noted biodiversity,hotspot, but the geographic origins and historical assembly of its rich endemic flora, including the sky-island species ofSolms-laubachia Muschl. （Brassicaceae）, have been little studied. Previous molecular studies on the phylogeny of Solms-laubachia showed it to be paraphyletic, leading to considerable expansion not only of its taxonomic limits, but also its geographic range, with the inclusion of taxa from outside the Hengduan region. However, these studies provided little resolution of interspecific relationships, preventing inferences about historical biogeography within the clade. In the present study, new sequence data from two nuclear genes （LEAFY and G3pdh） and two chloroplast intergenic spacers （petN-psbM and psbM-trnD） were combined with existing markers to increase phylogenetic signals. Phaeonychium villosum （Maxim.） Al-Shehbaz was found to be nested within Solms-laubachia s.l. In general, phylogenetic relationships appear to be a good predictor of geography, with the Hengduan Mountain endemics embedded in a paraphyletic grade of species from the western Himalayas and central Asia, but they also imply morphological homoplasy, lncongruence was detected between the nuclear and chloroplast gene trees, perhaps resulting from incomplete lineage sorting of ancestral polymorphisms. The crown age ofSolms-laubachia s.l. was estimated to be approximately 1.42-3.68 mya, using Bayesian relaxed molecular clock analysis. Historical biogeographic analysis using a parametric dispersalextinction-cladogenesis model inferred central Asia and the western Himalayas as most probable ancestral range of Solms-laubachia s.l., and estimated higher rates of eastward expansion than westward during the diversification of descendant lineages. In summary, our results suggest that Solms-laubachia s.l. originated during the Pliocene in central Asia, and subsequently migrated eastward into the Hengduan Mountains, colonizing sky-island, alpine scree-slope habitats that may have provided novel ecological opportunity and accelerated speciation, ultimately establishing this region as the present center of diversity of the genus.

Climatic envelope of evergreen sclerophyllous oaks and their present distribution in the eastern Himalaya and Hengduan Mountains

Evergreen sclerophyllous oaks （the E.S. oaks, Quercus section Heterobalanus） are the dominant species of the local ecosystem in the eastern Himalaya and the Hengduan Mountains, southwest China. In this study, we document the climatic envelope of the seven E.S. oak species and examine the relationships between climate and their distribution. This was done using a principal components analysis （PCA） and multiple regression analysis （MRA） of nine climatic indices. The main climatic envelope of the E.S. oaks were： mean temperature of the warmest month （MTW）= 12.0-19.5℃, warmth index （WI） = 33.2-88.9℃ month, annual biotemperature （BT）=-6.9- -0.3 ℃, coldness index （CI）=-30.4- -10.1 ℃ month, mean temperature of the coldest month （MTC）=-3.7-3.0℃ and annual precipitation （AP）=701-897 mm at the lower limits; and MTW=8.3-16.1℃, WI=15.7-59.1℃ month, BT=3.6-8.9℃, CI=-55.4-19.3℃ month, MTC=8.3-16.1 ℃ and AP=610-811 mm at the upper limits. The climatic range of the E.S. oaks is wide and includes two climatic zones, the cool-temperature zone and the subpolar zone. The PCA and MRA results suggest that the thermal climate plays a major role and precipitation plays a secondary role in controlling the large-scale distribution of the E.S. oaks, except Quercus monimotricha. In thermal regimes, BT and/or MTW are most important for both lower and upper limits of the E.S. oaks. Furthermore, our results indicate that the upper distribution limits of the E.S. oaks are less determined by low temperatures and their duration （CI） than by other factors.

Systematic positions of Lamiophlomis and Paraphlomis(Lamiaceae) based on nuclear and chloroplast sequences

Genera Lamiophlomis and Paraphlomis were originally separated from genus Phlomis s.1. on the basis of particular morphological characteristics. However, their relationship was highly contentious, as evidenced by the literature. In the present paper, the systematic positions of Lamiophlomis, Paraphlomis, and their related genera were assessed based on nuclear internal transcribed spacer （ITS） and chloroplast rpl16 and trnL-F sequence data using maximum parsimony （MP） and Bayesian methods. and outgroup were sampled. Analyses of both separate In total, 24 species representing six genera of the ingroup and combined sequence data were conducted to resolve the systematic relationships of these genera. The results reveal that Lamiophlomis is nested within Phlomis sect. Phlomoides and its generic status is not supported. With the inclusion ofLamiophlomis rotata in sect. Phlomoides, sections Phlomis and Phlomoides of Phlomis were resolved as monophyletic. Paraphlomis was supported as an independent genus. However, the resolution of its monophyly conflicted between MP and Bayesian analyses, suggesting the need for expended sampling and further evidence.

Morphological characteristics of leaf epidermis and size variation of leaf,flower and fruit in different ploidy levels in Buddleja macrostachya (Buddlejaceae)

Buddleja macrostachya （Buddlejaceae） is a widespread shrub native to the Sino-Himalayan mountains and beyond. It has been found to occur at two ploidy levels, hexaploid, 2n=6x=114 and dodecaploid, 2n= 12x=228. To determine if morphological characters might be used as indicators of ploidy levels, we measured floral and fruit length, relative and absolute leaf size, trichome density on both leaf surfaces, and stomatal density and length in different populations orB. macrostachya. In general, flower and fruit length, absolute leaf size, and stomatal length in,eased with an increase at ploidy level （P〈0.01）, whereas adaxial cell and stomatal density decreased with an increase at ploidy level （P〈0.01）. We found no conspicuous differences in relative leaf size （P〉0.05） in different populations. Other characters studied such as trichome type, cuticular membrane and ornamentation of stomata, cell and stomatal shape, and anticlinal wall pattern were quite constant in this species. Thus it appears that flower and fruit length, absolute leaf size, and stomatal frequency and length can be used to distinguish hexaptoid from dodecaploid cytotypes either in the field or in herbarium specimens.

Biogeographic diversification in Nolana(Solanaceae),a ubiquitous member of the Atacama and Peruvian Deserts along the western coast of South America

The present paper reconstructs the biogeographic diversification for Nolana L.f. （Solanaceae）, a genus of 89 endemic species largely restricted to fog-dependent desert lomas formations of coastal Peru and Chile. Previous efforts have reconstructed a phylogenetic estimate for Nolana using a combination of molecular markers. Herein, we expand on those results to examine hypotheses of biogeographic origins and diversification patterns. Nolana occupies habitats within a continuous coastal desert and forms a terrestrial archipelago of discrete ＂islands＂ unique in size, topography, and species composition. Each locality contains at least one Nolana species and many contain multiple species in sympatry. The genus has a Chilean origin, with the basal clades confined to Chile with wide geographic and ecological distributions. Peru contains two strongly supported clades, suggesting two introductions with subsequent radiation. A Chilean clade of shrubby, small-flowered species appears to have had its origins from the same ancestors of the second line that radiated in Peru and northern Chile. Nolana galapagensis is endemic to the Islas Galapagos, with origins traced to Peruvian taxa with a divergence time of 0.35 mya. Rates of diversification over the past 4.02 mya in Nolana, in one of the driest habitats on Earth, suggest rapid adaptive radiation in several clades. Success in Nolana may be attributed to characters that confer a competitive advantage in unpredictable and water-dependent environments, such as succulent leaf anatomy and ecophysiology, and the reproductive mericarp unique to Nolana. The processes affecting or shaping the biota of western South America are discussed.

The effects of fresh and rapid desiccated tissue on estimates of Ophiopogoneae genome size

Fresh plant material is usually used for genome size estimation by flow cytometry(FCM). Lack of fresh material is cited as one of the main reasons for the dearth of studies on plants from remote locations.Genome sizes in fresh versus desiccated tissue of 16 Ophiopogoneae species and five model plant species were estimated. Our results indicated that desiccated tissue was suitable for genome size estimation; this method enables broader geographic sampling of plants when fresh tissue collection is not feasible. To be useful, after dessication the Ophiopogoneae sample should be green without brown or yellow markings;it should be stored in deep freezer at à80C, and the storage time should be no more than 6 months.

Revision of Senegalia in China, and notes on introduced species of Acacia, Acaciella, Senegalia and Vachellia(Leguminosae: Mimosoideae)

The present work represents the first comprehensive taxonomic revision of Acacia sens.lat.(Leguminosae:Mimosoideae)in China,focusing on the indigenous species.Critical reassessments of specimens and re-defin让ion of previously recorded species have resulted in recognising 21 indigenous species under Senegalia,a segregate of the former Acacia sens.tat.Detailed botanical profiles are provided for these species,together w让h a diagnostic line drawing and distribution map;photographs of living plants are provided for more than half the species.Terser treatments are also provided for the 15 species from four genera that are regarded as major introductions of Acacia sens.lat.to the country:Acacia Mill.(12 spp.),Acaciella Britton&Rose(1 sp.),Senegalia Raf.(1 sp.)and Vachellia Wight&Arn.(1 sp.).An identification key to all Acacia sens.lat.species in China is provided.The indigenous species of Senegalia in China belong to sect.Monacanthea(Vassal)Maslin,comb,nov.,and the introduced ones to sect.Senegalia.As a consequence of this study,the number of Senegalia species now recognised for China has almost doubled.Six new species are described:Senegalia clandestina Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,sp.nov.;Senegalia guangdongensis Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,sp.nov.;Senegalia obliqua Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,sp.nov.;Senegalia orientalis Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,sp.nov.;Senegalia prominens Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,sp.nov.;Senegalia stipitata Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,sp.nov.Four new combinations are established:Senegalia garrettii(I.C.Nielsen)Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,comb.&stat,nov.;Senegalia kerrii(I.C.Nielsen)Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,comb.&stat,nov.;Senegalia kunmingensis(C.Chen&H.Sun)Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,comb.&stat,nov.;Senegalia macrocephala(Lace)Maslin,B.C.Ho,H.Sun&LBai,comb.nov.Senegalia andamanica(I.C.Nielsen)Maslin,Seigler&Ebinger and S.macrocephala are new records for China.A lectotype is designated for Acacia teniana Harms and 2nd step lectotypifications effected for Acacia delavayi Franch.,Acacia insuavis Lace,Acacia pruinescens Kurz and Acacia yunnanensis Franch.Former holotype citations are corrected to lectotype for Acacia hainanensis Hayata,Acacia macrocephala Lace,Acacia oxyphylla Graham ex Benth.and Acacia philippinarum Benth.A neotype is designated for Acacia arrophula D.Don.China is a principal area of species-richness for Senegalia in Asia.Senegalia displays a high degree of endemism within China and almost half the species are endemic or near-endemic,w让h Yunnan the most species-rich and species-diverse Province.

Cytological study on the genus Syncalathium (Asteraceae-Lactuceae),an endemic taxon to alpine scree of the Sino-Himalayas

Cytological characters of four species in Syncalathium （Asteraceae： Lactuceae）, a small genus with six identified species endemic to alpine scree of the Sino-Himalayan region, are surveyed in this report. Three species （Syncalathiumpilosum, Syncalathium chrysocephalum, and Syncalathium disciforme） are examined for the first time. Combined with our previous counts, five species have been cytologically investigated from the genus and the results indicated that all species are diploid with the basic somatic chromosome number of x=8. The karyotype asymmetry of Syncalathium souliei is 2A, distinct from the other four species of 1A, and the remaining species are divided into two subgroups with different karyotypes, consistent with their morphological features. The significance of the cytological evolution of Syncalathium is briefly discussed.

Low genetic diversity and high genetic differentiation in the critically endangered Omphalogramma souliei (Primulaceae):implications for its conservation

Omphalogramma souliei Franch. is an endangered perennial herb only distributed in alpine areas of SW China. ISSR markers were applied to determine the genetic variation and genetic structure of 60 individuals of three populations of O. souliei in NW Yunnan, China. The genetic diversity at the species level is low with P=42.5% （percentage of polymorphic bands） and Hsp=0.1762 （total genetic diversity）. However, a high level of genetic differentiation among populations was detected based on different measures （Nei＇s genetic diversity analysis： Gst=0.6038; AMOVA analysis： Fst=0.6797）. Low level of genetic diversity within populations and significant genetic differentiation among populations might be due to the mixed mating system in which xenogamy predominated and autogamy played an assistant role in O. souliei. The genetic drift due to small population size and limited current gene flow also resulted in significant genetic differentiation. The assessment of genetic variation and differentiation of the endangered species provides important information for conservation on a genetic basis. Conservation strategies for this rare endemic species are proposed.

Chemical Constituents from Turnip and Their Effects on α-Glucosidase

Brassica rapa var.rapa(turnip)is an important crop in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP)with anti-hypoxic effect.Turnip is rich in glucosinolates,isothiocyanates and phenolic compounds with diverse biological activities,involving anti-oxidant,anti-tumor,anti-diabetic,anti-inflammatory,anti-microbial,hypolipidemic,cardioprotective,hepatoprotective,nephroprotective and analgesic properties.In this study,the ethyl acetate(EtOAc)and butanol parts of Brassica rapa were first revealed with inhibitory effects onα-glucosidase,whereas the water part was inactive.Subsequent bioassay-guided isolation on the EtOAc and butanol parts yielded 12 compounds,involving three indole derivatives,indole-3-acetonitrile(1)4-methoxyindole-3-acetonitrile(2)and indole-3-aldehyde(3)two flavonoids,liquiritin(4)and licochalcone A(5)two phenylpropanoids,sinapic acid(6)and caffeic acid(7)two phenylethanol glycosides,2-phenylethylβ-glucopyranoside(8)and salidroside(9)and three other compounds,syringic acid(10)adenosine(11)and(3β,20E)-ergosta-5,20(22)-dien-3-ol(12)Licochalcone A(5)and caffeic acid(7)showedα-glucosidase inhibitory activity with IC 50 values of 62.4±8.0μM and 162.6±3.2μM,comparable to the positive control,acarbose(IC 50=142±0.02μM).Docking study suggested that licochalcone A(5)could well align in the active site ofα-glucosidase(docking score=-52.88)by forming hydrogen bonds(Gln1372,Asp1420,Gln1372,Arg1510),hydrophobic effects(Tyr1251,Tyr1251,Trp1355,Phe1560,Ile1587,Trp1355,Phe1559,Phe1559)andπ-πstacking interaction(Trp1355).This study provides valuable information for turnip as a new resource in searching anti-diabetic candidates.

Contribution to Confirmed &Synthesized on Mycorrhizae of <i>Tuber indicum</i>s.l. with Two Dominated &Subalpine Broadleaf Trees in Southwestern China

The ascomata and mycorrhizae of Tuber indicum s.l. were collected under the forest of broad-leaf species Populus yunnanensis and Quercus pannosa in the field respectively. The symbiotic relationships of both trees with T. indicum were examined and affirmed based on morphology and ITS-rDNA sequences. These two mycorrhizal combinations were successfully produced on artificially controlled substrates and cultural condition. This is the first report of a mycorrhizal association and synthesis between Chinese black truffles and poplars. A hyphal net covering the mantle’s surface of the mycorrhizae was detected in both mycorrhizal combinations. The mycorrhizal colonization of P. yunnanensis and Q. pannosa suggests that T. indicum s.l. has a broader host range and that additional corresponding wood species would be used as candidates for the cultivation of T. indicum. The nuclear-ITS sequences of the mycorrhizae included in the phylogeny of the T. indicum complex revealed that the two clades within the complex do not markedly differ with respect to their preferences for host species or geographical origin. Our results help to explain the wide distribution of both clades of the T. indicum complex. It would be more important for truffle conservation and Chinese black truffle plantation development with these two dominated & alpestrine Populus yunnanensis and Quercus pannosa at subalpine limestone areas in China.

Impact of tree diversity and environmental conditions on the survival of shrub species in a forest biodiversity experiment in subtropical China

Aims Although shrubs are an important component of forests,their role has not yet been considered in forest biodiversity experiments.In the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning(BEF)experiment with subtropical tree species in south-east China(BEF-China),we factorially combined tree with shrub species-diversity treatments.Here,we tested the hypotheses that shrub survival differs between the 10 planted shrub species,with lower survival rates of late-than early-successional species and is affected by environmental conditions,such as topography and top soil characteristics,as well as by biotic factors,represented by tree,shrub and herb layer characteristics.Methods We analyzed the survival of 42000 shrub individuals in 105 plots varying in tree and shrub species richness of the BEF-China project four years after planting.Shrub survival was analyzed with generalized linear mixed effects models at the level of individuals and with variance partitioning at the plot level.Random intercept and random slope models of different explanatory variables were compared with respect to the Bayesian Information Criterion(BIC).Important Findings Survival rates differed largely between the 10 shrub species,ranging from 26%to 91%for Ardisia crenata and Distylium buxifolium,respectively.Irrespective of species identity,single abiotic factors explained up to 5%of species survival,with a negative effect of altitude and slope inclination and a positive effect of the topsoil carbon to nitrogen ratio,which pointed to drought as the major cause of shrub mortality.In contrast,neither tree nor shrub richness affected shrub survival at this early stage of the experiment.Among the biotic predictors,only herb layer species richness and cover of the dominant fern species(Dicranopteris pedata)affected shrub survival.Overall,our models that included all variables could explain about 65%in shrub survival,with environmental variables being most influential,followed by shrub species identity,while tree species diversity(species richness and identity)and herb layer characteristics contributed much less.Thus,in this early stage of the experiment the biotic interactions among shrubs and between shrubs and trees have not yet overruled the impact of abiotic environmental factors.

Evolution of the platycodonoid group with particular references to biogeography and character evolution

The Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau（QTP）is an important center of origin and diversification for many northern temperate plants.The hypothesis＂out‐of‐QTP＂suggests that the majority of northern temperate plants have originated and dispersed from the QTP and adjacent regions.An interesting question is whether the biogeographic history of the platycodonoids（Campanulaceae）,a group mainly distributed in the QTP and adjacent regions,coincides with the hypothesis＂out‐of‐QTP＂？Furthermore,how have the diagnostic characters of the platycodonoids evolved？In the present study,all 10genera of the platycodonoids were sampled for molecular phylogeny and dating analyses,and ancestral states of distribution and characters were reconstructed.The results do not support the platycodonoids as an＂out‐of‐QTP＂group,but instead they might have descended from Tethyan ancestors.The dispersal and diversification of the platycodonoids in Asia might have been driven by the uplift of the QTP.The present study highlights the importance of the Tethyan Tertiary flora for the origin of the Sino‐Himalayan flora and the influence of the uplift of QTP on diversification of northern temperate plants.In addition,character state reconstruction reveals that the inferior ovary,capsule,long‐colpate pollen,and chromosome number 2n=14 are probably ancestral states.

Floristics and Plant Biogeography in China

In 1998, a revolutionary system of angiosperm classification, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system was published. Meanwhile, another new system of classification of angiosperms, the eight-class system was proposed by C.Y. Wu and colleagues based on long term work on the flora of China. The Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae project was initiated in 1959 and completed by 2004. It is the largest Flora so far completed in the world, including 31 228 species of vascular plants, or one-eighth of the global plant diversity. The English-language and updated Flora of China （FOC） is an international joint effort initiated in 1988 and accelerated in 1998. Up to now, 15 of the 24 volumes of the FOC have been published. Based on the floristic data, the composition, characteristics, floristic divisions and affinities of the flora of China have been studied by Wu and colleagues since 1965. In the past 10 years, analyses of the available floristic data have been very productive. The East Asiatic Floristic Kingdom was proposed in 1998. All 346 families of angiosperms in China, according to the eight-class system of classification, were comprehensively discussed by using knowledge of current and historical distribution of seed plants in the world, together with some morphological and molecular data. A scheme of distribution patterns or areal-types of families and genera of seed plants in China was modified and elucidated, together with a proposed scheme of areal-types of the world. Molecular phylogenetic and biogeographical studies of angiosperms in China in the past 10 years also witnessed a progressive development. Integration of morphological and molecular data and fossil evidence revealed some significant results. Eastern Asia, which used to be regarded as an important center of survival during the ice age, is likely an important center of diversification of angiosperms.

Origin and differentiation of endemism in the flora of China

The present paper analyzed 239 endemic genera in 67 families in the flora of seed plants in China.The results showed that there are five families containing more than ten endemic genera,namely,Gesneriaceae(27),which hereafter refers to the number of endemic genera in China,Composite(20),Labiatae(12),Cruciferae(11),and Umbelliferae(10),15 families with two endemic genera,and another 30 families with only one endemic genus.Four monotypic families(Ginkgoaceae,Davidiaceae,Eucommiaceae and Acanthochlamydaceae)are the most ancient,relict and characteristic in the flora of seed plants in China.Based on integrative data of systematics,fossil history,and morphological and molecular evidence of these genera,their origin,evolution and relationships were discussed.In gymnosperms,all endemic genera are relicts of the Arctic-Tertiary flora,having earlier evolutionary history,and can be traced back to the Cretaceous or to the Jurassic and even earlier.In angiosperms,the endemic genera are mostly relicts,and are represented in all lineages in the“Eight-Class System of Classification of Angiosperms”,and endemism can be found in almost every evolutionary stage of extant angiosperms.The relict genera once occupied huge areas in the northern hemisphere in the Tertiary or the late Cretaceous,while neo-endemism mostly originated in the late Tertiary.They came from Arctic-Tertiary,Paleo-tropical-Tertiary and Tethys-Tertiary florisitic elements,and the blend of the three elements with many genera of autochthonous origin.The endemism was formed when some dispersal routes such as the North Atlantic Land Bridge,and the Bering Bridge became discontinuous during the Tertiary,as well as the climate change and glaciations in the late Tertiary and the Quaternary.Therefore,the late Tertiary is the starting point of extant endemism of the flora in China.

Phylogeny and Evolution of Bracts and Bracteoles in Tacca (Dioscoreaceae)

Most species in the genus Tacca （Dioscoreaceae） feature green to black purple, conspicuous inflorescence involucral bracts with variable shapes, motile filiform appendages （bracteoles）, and diverse types of inflorescence morphology. To infer the evolution of these inflorescence traits, we reconstructed the molecular phylogeny of the genus, using DNA sequences from one nuclear, one mitochondrial, and three plastid loci （Internal Transcribed Spacer （ITS）, atpA, rbcL, trnL-F, and trnH-psbA）. Involucres and bracteoles characters were mapped onto the phylogeny to analyze the sequence of inflorescence trait evolution. In all analyses, species with showy involucres and bracteoles formed the most derived clade, while ancestral Tacca had small and plain involucres and short bracteoles, namely less conspicuous inflorescence structures. Two of the species with the most elaborate inflorescence morphologies （T. chantrieri in southeast China and T. integrifolia in Tibet）, are predominantly self-pollinated, indicating that these conspicuous floral displays have other functions rather than pollinator attraction. We hypothesize that the motile bracteoles and involucres may facilitate selfing; display photosynthesis in the dim understory, and protect flowers from herbivory.

Factors acting on the distribution region of Carlemanniaceae:Rainfall,temperatureand the plants' biological characteristics

在东亚和热带亚洲的家庭 Carlemanniaceae，包括二个类， Carlemannia 和 Silvianthus，主要沿着 Himalaya 山的南部的脚和云南高原的西方、南部的接口被散布。为 Carlemannia 四角形的主要繁殖过程一被授粉实验在这个工作作为自花受粉验证。为两 C 的种子的萌芽率。当种子在二个月以后是镇定的时， and Silvianthus bracteatus 能百分之百到达的四角形，当率减少了到 25% 时当收集发生在上一年时。种子没有休眠阶段，这被发现，并且他们的种子银行具有短暂土壤类型。在地观察，为水果的裂开地位证明他们的种子不能被囊为疏开有效地逐出。在从年分析温度和降雨数据以后 1971～2000 ，它被看那年度降雨，最低吝啬的月刊一年里的温度，和在一个月内的极端最低温度在 Carlemanniaceae 的分发范围上有大效果，当吝啬的年度温度有更小的效果时。Carlemanniaceae 的狭窄的分发范围被多重因素影响，例如短花粉疏开距离和短暂土壤种子银行。Carlemanniaceae 的人口尺寸被降雨的水平，不是由任何单个变量容易也影响。

Borofutus, a new genus of Boletaceae from tropical Asia: phylogeny, morphology and taxonomy

A new monotypic genus in the Boletaceae,Borofutus,typified by B.dhakanus,is described using morphological and molecular evidence.This is a putatively ectomycorrhizal fungus associated with Shorea robusta.Borofutus is characterized by the combination of the following characters:basidiomata small to medium-sized;pileus grayish brown to cocoa brown;hymenophore subdecurrent,cream then golden brown,with broad,nearly hexagonal pores;basidiospores purple to purplish red in H2O,ornamented with irregular to regular shallow pits;cystidia lageniform,thick-walled.Borofutus is sister to Spongiforma in molecular phylogenetic analyses using DNA nucleotide sequences of single or multiple loci.A description,line drawings,phylogenetic placement and comparison with allied taxa are presented herein.