Identifying priority protection areas of key food resources of the giant panda

Animals that live in seasonal environments adjust their reproduction cycle to optimize seasonal forage quality.Giant pandas(Ailuropoda melanoleuca)are seasonal altitudinal migrants that feed on bamboo shoots and leaves with different nutritional quality.However,the importance of bamboo shoots to giant pandas,especially small and isolated populations,is not fully appreciated.Here,we explored whether mating time of giant pandas is shaped by bamboo shoot phenology.We also assessed the intensity of ongoing bamboo shoot harvesting by local communities in 42 giant panda reserves based on questionnaire surveys.Varying intensity and protection levels of bamboo shoot harvesting were found.From these data,we developed a priority ranking scheme of protection areas for this key food resource.Our study showed that pandas time their mating behavior to coincide with bamboo shoot phenology due to the high nutritional demands associated with mating and pregnancy.We also found that bamboo shoots were not well protected in many places.Liangshan,Daxiangling,and Xiaoxiangling,containing the most isolated panda populations,were identified as the areas with the most urgent need of protection.Furthermore,equal attention should be paid to the Qiong L-B population,as this region holds considerable potential to serve as a corridor between the Minshan and Qionglai populations.To address the challenges posed by bamboo shoot harvesting,we recommend establishing more practical bamboo shoot management policies,increasing public awareness of bamboo shoot protection,and providing alternative sources of income for local communities.

Improved mammalian family phylogeny using gap-rare multiple sequence alignment:A timetree of extant placentals and marsupials

The timing of mammalian diversification in relation to the Cretaceous-Paleogene(KPg)mass extinction continues to be a subject of substantial debate.Previous studies have either focused on limited taxonomic samples with available whole-genome data or relied on short sequence alignments coupled with extensive species samples.In the present study,we improved an existing dataset from the landmark study of Meredith et al.(2011)by filling in missing fragments and further generated another dataset containing 120 taxa and 98 exonic markers.Using these two datasets,we then constructed phylogenies for extant mammalian families,providing improved resolution of many conflicting relationships.Moreover,the timetrees generated,which were calibrated using appropriate molecular clock models and multiple fossil records,indicated that the interordinal diversification of placental mammals initiated before the Late Cretaceous period.Additionally,intraordinal diversification of both extant placental and marsupial lineages accelerated after the KPg boundary,supporting the hypothesis that the availability of numerous vacant ecological niches subsequent to the mass extinction event facilitated rapid diversification.Thus,our results support a scenario of placental radiation characterized by both basal cladogenesis and active interordinal divergences spanning from the Late Cretaceous into the Paleogene.

Unique characteristics of gut microbiota in black snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus strykeri) reveal an enzymatic mechanism of adaptation to dietary vegetation

DEAR EDITOR,The Myanmar or black snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus strykeri) is a recently discovered and critically endangered colobus primate with an unknown gut microbiota. Here, we characterized and compared the gut microbiota of R. strykeri with those of two closely related snub-nosed monkey species.

Global freshwater assessment of establishment risk of invasive Alligator gar(Atractosteus spatula) and risks to freshwater ecosystems in China

DEAR EDITOR,The introduction of freshwater fish into areas outside their native range has impacted freshwater ecosystems worldwide.In China,the non-native Alligator gar(Atractosteus spatula)fish has attracted attention due to its widespread occurrence and destructive effects on local fish populations,signaling a high potential of invasiveness.

Climate change challenge, extinction risk, and successful conservation experiences for a threatened primate species in China: Golden snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus roxellana)

DEAR EDITOR, Despite the vulnerability of primates to the negative impacts of human activities and climate change, there is still room for optimism. Notably, years of conservation efforts may have paid off for the golden snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus roxellana). Our field surveys confirmed the existence of 188 to 220 wild multilevel societies(MLS) of R. roxellana, with an estimated 22 710 to 26 130 individuals in 2019。

Conservation genomics of sibling grouse in boreal forests reveals introgression and adaptive population differentiation in genes controlling epigenetic variation

The Chinese Grouse(Tetrastes sewerzowi) and Hazel Grouse(T. bonasia) are sibling species that are well-adapted to harsh high-altitude and latitude habitats. In the current study, we sampled and sequenced 29 Chinese Grouse(n=16) and Hazel Grouse(n=13) from eight locations in China, Sweden,Germany, and northeast Poland to analyze population genetic diversity and structure, introgression, and local adaptation.

Organochlorine compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediment from Baiyangdian Lake,North China:Concentrations,sources profiles and potential risk

Organochlorine pesticides （OCPs）, polychlorinated biphenyls （PCBs）, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons （PAHs） were determined in nineteen surface sediment samples collected from Baiyangdian Lake and its inflowing river （Fuhe River） in North China. Total concentrations of OCPs, PCBs and PAHs in sediments ranged from 5.4 to 707.6 ng]g, 2.3 to 197.8 ng/g, and 101.3 to 6360.5 ng]g, respectively. The levels of contaminants in Fuhe River were significantly higher than those in Baiyandian Lake. For hexachlorocyclohexane （HCHs） and dichlorodiphenytrich/oroethanes （DDTs）, α-HCH and p,p＇-DDT were predominant isomers; while for PCBs, PCB 28/31, PCB 40/103, PCB 60, PCB 101, and PCB 118 were predominant congeners. Possible sources derived from historical usage for OCPs and incomplete combustion fuel, wood, and coal and exhaustion of boats or cars for PAHs. Risk assessment of sediment indicated that sediments in Fuhe River were likely to pose potential biological adverse impact.

Artificial selection shapes the lower genomic diversity and higher selective pressures on the sex chromosomes of domestic animals

Dear Editor,Sheep and goats were among the earliest domestic animals(Zeder,2008).During the transition from being hunted to being herded,excess males not involved in propagation were slaughtered at young ages under the sex-biased harvest strategies(Zeder,2008).

Effects of Pesticide Exposure on Embryonic Development and Hatchling Traits of Turtles

Deltamethrin is a widespread environmental hormone with endocrine-disrupting properties, but its effect on embryonic development of reptiles is largely unexplored. We investigated the effects of deltamethrin on embryonic development and offspring traits in two turtle species, one with parchment-shelled eggs and the other with rigidshelled eggs. Deltamethrin exposure during egg incubation did not affect hatching success and hatchling body size in either species. However, embryonic exposure to deltamethrin resulted in reduced hatchling locomotor performance in the red-eared slider turtle（Trachemys scripta） with parchment-shelled eggs, but not in the Chinese three-keeled pond turtle（Chinemys reevesii） with rigid-shelled eggs. These results suggest that parchment-shelled eggs are likely more vulnerable to deltamethrin than rigid-shelled eggs.

Characteristics of microfauna and their relationships with the performance of an activated sludge plant in China

The occurrence and abundance of the microfauna groups were compared with the physico-chemical and operational parameters of the Baoding Lugang Sewage Treatment Plant in China. Attached and crawling ciliates were the dominant groups of ciliates. Crawling ciliates and testate amoebae showed a strong association with effluent BOD5 （biochemical oxygen demand）. Therefore, these two groups are likely to be useful bioindicators since their number decreased as the process produced poor quality effluent. Testate amoebae also had significant negative correlations with effluent TN （total nitrogen）, NH4^＋-N, SS （suspended solids） and SVI （sludge volumetric index）, which means that this group of ciliates may be indicators of good performance of the activated sludge system. Carnivorous ciliates and flagellates had significant positive correlations with SVI, suggesting that these two groups may be indicators of bad settlement conditions of sludge. As identification of the microfauna species is difficult and time-consuming, we recommend using microfauna functional groups to evaluate the performance of the activated sludge system.

Activity budgets in a group of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys in Shennongjia Nature Reserve,China

We examined time allocation by Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus roxellana in the montane,temperate and highly seasonal forests of the Shennongjia Nature Reserve in China,in order to improve our understanding of the ecological and social influences on monkey behavior.We collected data on activity budgets in relation to food availability in a group of monkeys from July 2003 to September 2004(except February 2004),using instantaneous scan samples.The monkeys spent 36.21% of daytime moving(n=21,269 records),24.39% foraging,9.33% inactive,11.7% performing social behaviors,and 18.38% performing other behaviors.There were seasonal and annual variations in the proportions of time devoted to some activities.These variations were largely attributed to seasonal or annual fluctuations in the distribution and quality of food resources.Adult males spent more time moving,searching,and displaying other behaviors,but less time feeding and performing social behaviors than adult females.Adults performed other behaviors more often and moving less often than juveniles.These differences in activity budgets may reflect fundamental differences in reproductive biology,parental investment,and development among the different age/sex classes.

Variations in diet composition of sympatric Trachypithecus francoisi and Macaca assamensis in the limestone habitats of Nonggang, China

Comparative studies of sympatric species are essential for understanding behavioral and ecological adaptation as well as the mechanisms that can reduce resource competition to allow coexistence. Francois＇ langurs （Trachypithecus francoisi） and Assamese macaques （Macaca assamensis） are sympatric primate species found in the limestone seasonal rainforests of Nonggang Nature Reserve, southwestern Guangxi, China. To explore their different adaptation strategies, we collected data on diet using scan sampling at 15-min intervals. Our results revealed that Francois＇ langurs showed a more flexible diet composition than Assamese macaques Francois＇ langurs increased dietary diversity and mature leaf consumption in response to seasonal scarcity of preferred young leaves and fruits, whereas Assamese macaques relied heavily on young bamboo leaves （Indocalamus calcicolus） in most months These variations reflect the differences in digestive physiology, morphology, and the temporal and spatial distribution of food resources.

Home range variation of two different-sized groups of golden snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia, China: implications for feeding competition

Knowledge on the home range size of a species or population is important for understanding its behavioral and social ecology and improving the effectiveness of conservation strategies. We studied the home range size of two different-sized groups of golden snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia, China. The larger group(236 individuals)had a home range of 22.5 km2 from September2007 to July 2008, whereas the smaller group(62 individuals) occupied a home range of 12.4 km2 from November 2008 to July 2009. Both groups exhibited considerable seasonal variation in their home range size, which was likely due to seasonal changes in food availability and distribution. The home range in any given season(winter, spring, summer, or winter+spring+summer) of the larger group was larger than that of the smaller group. As the two groups were studied in the same area, with the confounding effects of food availability thus minimized, the positive relationship between home range size and group size suggested that scramble feeding competition increased within the larger group.

Mitogenomic phylogeny of the Asian colobine genus Trachypithecus with special focus on Trachypithecus phayrei(Blyth, 1847) and description of a new species

Trachypithecus,which currently contains 20 species divided into four groups,is the most speciose and geographically dispersed genus among Asian colobines.Despite several morphological and molecular studies,however,its evolutionary history and phylogeography remain poorly understood.Phayre’s langur(Trachypithecus phayrei) is one of the most widespread members of the genus,but details on its actual distribution and intraspecific taxonomy are limited and controversial.Thus,to elucidate the evolutionary history of Trachypithecus and to clarify the intraspecific taxonomy and distribution of T.phayrei,we sequenced 41 mitochondrial genomes from georeferenced fecal samples and museum specimens,including two holotypes.Phylogenetic analyses revealed a robustly supported phylogeny of Trachypithecus,suggesting that the T.pileatus group branched first,followed by the T.francoisi group,and the T.cristatus and T.obscurus groups most recently.The four species groups diverged from each other 4.5-3.1 million years ago(Ma),while speciation events within these groups occurred much more recently(1.6-0.3 Ma).Within T.phayrei,we found three clades that diverged 1.0-0.9 Ma,indicating the existence of three rather than two taxa.Following the phylogenetic species concept and based on genetic,morphological,and ecological differences,we elevate the T.phayrei subspecies to species level,describe a new species from central Myanmar,and refine the distribution of the three taxa.Overall,our study highlights the importance of museum specimens and provides new insights not only into the evolutionary history of T.phayrei but the entire Trachypithecus genus as well.

The breeding biology of endemic Spectacled Parrotbill(Sinosuthora conspicillatus) in Lianhuashan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province, China

Background: Life history traits play critical roles in population survival and evolution.Breeding information should be particularly detailed in order to provide significant insights into the population status and the evolution of other traits.To our knowledge, there is still no information about the breeding biology of Spectacled Parrotbill(Sinosuthora conspicillatus), an endemic parrotbill in China.Methods: We searched the nests, checked all nests found and recorded the information of eggs, nestlings and nest sites of the Spectacled Parrotbill from 2013 to 2015 at Lianhuashan National Nature Reserve in Gansu Province, China.Results: A total of 16 nests were found.Nest trees were artificial young spruces and honeysuckles.Mean nest height was 0.89 ± 0.47 m(n = 16) above the ground level.All nests were cup-shaped and constructed using leaves, fine strips of barks and grasses by both parents.The mean clutch size was 4.42 ± 0.79(n = 12).The eggs were oval in pale blue without speckles, and the mean egg mass was 1.25 ± 0.07 g(n = 27).The egg length was 15.56 ± 0.46 mm(n = 27) and the width was 12.46 ± 0.29 mm(n = 27).Incubation period was 13 days and nestling period was 13–14 days.The breeding success rate was 46%, and among those failed nest, 71% were depredated and 29% were deserted.Conclusion: Detailed life history information about parrotbill is still limited.The breeding biology of Spectacled Parrotbill reported in the present study should be helpful for further research about population, breeding behavior and conservation of this bird.

Proximate causes of dispersal for female Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys

DEAR EDITOR,Individual dispersal trends, unquestionably important for species ecology and evolution, are affected by multiple factors. Understanding the factors that influence female dispersal strategies offers important insight into primate dispersal mechanisms and female choice. To investigate the proximate causes of dispersal in female Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti), we observed and analyzed nine years of detailed dispersal and demographic data from a population of R. bieti in Xiangguqing, Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, Yunnan Province, China. Results showed that females who lived long-term in a one-male unit (OMU), without giving birth and with few or no relatives, were more likely to leave that OMU. In addition, an OMU led by an outgroup male and containing more female relatives was significantly more likely to be chosen for immigration. Conversely, greater male age, longer male tenure, and more potentially fertile females discouraged immigration into an OMU. These results suggest that reproduction, male quality, and kin cooperation play the largest roles in female Yunnan snub-nosed monkey dispersal.

Egg laying and incubation rhythm of the Chinese Grouse(Tetrastes sewerzowi)at Lianhuashan,Gansu,China

Background:Incubating birds must balance the conflict between thermal needs of the developing embryos and their self?maintenance needs for energy.The Chinese Grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) lives in high mountain conifer forests and faces energy stress,cold environment,and predation pressure.Females might adjust incubation rhythm to adapt to these constraints. Methods:Two methods were used to investigate egg laying and incubation pattern of the Chinese Grouse;25 nests were monitored by data loggers and 12 nests by infrared video cameras. Results:Female Chinese Grouses usually laid an egg every 2 days.The incubation period was 28-31 days. Overall incubation constancy for Chinese Grouse was 93%. The females took 5.0 recesses per day and 34% of all 1696 recesses were taken in the crepuscular period. The average recess duration was 20.3 min. Females took more and shorter recesses in the latter part of incubation.The females who allocated more time to foraging had a higher reproductive success. Conclusions:Probably due to its high egg/body mass ratio,the Chinese Grouse has a long laying interval of 49 h. We suggest that,due to energy stress,females have relatively more recesses and they increase the number of recesses as incubation progresses.To compensate for the embryos'thermal needs, they extend the incubation period and shorten the recess duration in this cold environment.

Diet and Prey Selection of the Invasive American Bullfrog(Lithobates catesbeianus) in Southwestern China

Invasive predators have been widely regarded as one of the principle drivers of the global decline of amphibians, which are among the most threatened vertebrate taxon on Earth. The American bullfrog （Lithobates catesbeianus） is identiifed as one of the most successful vertebrate invaders and has caused the decline or extinction of some native amphibians in many regions and countries including China. Based on ifeld surveys and stomach content analyses, we examined the diet composition of the invasive bullfrog for the ifrst time in two invaded populations in Yunnan Province, southwestern China, a region of global conservation priority, during the breeding season from 2008 to 2014. Additionally, we conducted the first quantitative study on the prey selection of this global invader among their invaded ranges after controlling for the local anuran assemblage and other aquatic preys in the environment. Our results showed that the range of food items in the stomachs of bullfrogs spanned more than 30 species belonging to ten taxonomic classes. Both of post-metamorphosis individuals and juveniles preyed upon native frogs, independent of the bullfrog’s body size and mouth width. Importantly, Jacobs’ selection index showed a bullfrog preference for the Yunnan pond frog （Babina pleuraden）, one native endemic anuran with population decline, in terms of both food volume and occurrence. We therefore provided direct evidence on the predation impact of the invasive bullfrog on an endemic anuran and urged further efforts to prevent the dispersal of this invader into more fragile habitats to reduce their negative impacts on native amphibians.

Expression of HIF-1α and Its Target Genes in the Nanorana parkeri Heart：Implications for High Altitude Adaptation

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha（HIF-1α） and its target genes vascular endothelial growth factor（VEGF） and transferrins（TF） play an important role in native endothermic animals＇ adaptation to the high altitude environments. For ectothermic animals – especially frogs – it remains undetermined whether HIF-1α and its target genes（VEGF and TF） play an important role in high altitude adaptation, too. In this study, we compared the gene sequences and expression of HIF-1α and its target genes（VEGF and TF） between three Nanorana parkeri populations from different altitudes（3008 m a.s.l., 3440 m a.s.l. and 4312 m a.s.l.）. We observed that the c DNA sequences of HIF-1A exhibited high sequence similarity（99.38%） among the three altitudinally separated populations; but with increasing altitude, the expression of HIF-1A and its target genes（VEGF and TF） increased significantly. These results indicate that HIF-1α plays an important role in N. parkeri adaptation to the high altitude, similar to its role in endothermic animals.

Impact of sympatric carnivores on den selection of wild giant pandas

Interspecific killing is a primary reason for the low survival rates of some animal species. The giant panda(Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is an altricial eutherian mammal and thus, in comparison to other infants, panda cubs are highly vulnerable, which may significantly influence the selection of breeding sites by females. Here, we used infrared camera traps to monitor giant panda dens for 5.5 years in Foping National Nature Reserve(FNNR) to determine how interspecific factors affect den selection by wild female pandas. Results indicated that Asian black bears(Ursus thibetanus), yellow-throated martens(Martes flavigula), leopard cats(Prionailurus bengalensis), and masked palm civets(Paguma larvata) visited the dens frequently, and the presence of these species negatively influenced den selection by female pandas. Interestingly, the presence of rodents and terrestrial birds appeared to indicate den safety, and female giant pandas were not averse and even preferred dens with a high abundance index of rodents and terrestrial birds. The den suitability index(DSI) was a reliable tool for evaluating whether dens were suitable for female giant pandas to give birth to and rear cubs, with preference for dens with high DSI values. This study increases our understanding of the den selection criteria of female giant pandas and the main threats to the survival of their cubs,thus providing important guidance for the conservation and management of this species.