Functional trait profiles and diversity of trees regenerating in disturbed tropical forests and agroforests in Indonesia

A main question in restoration of degraded forests and forest landscapes recovering from logging and fire is what to expect from natural regeneration through surviving propagules in the soil or seed sources and associated dispersal agents from the surrounding landscape mosaic,as alternative to tree planting.Tree diversity in secondary forests may be high,but based on newcomer species of low wood density and long-distance,abiotic dispersal modes.We compiled and analyzed three pairs of case studies(totaling 815 plots and 11.8 ha)of secondary forests recovering from logging,fire and conversion to agroforest in Sumatra and Kalimantan(Indonesia)on mineral soils.Data on tree species diversity,wood density frequency distribution(indicative of successional status)and dispersal modes were compared with those of less disturbed comparator forests in the same landscapes.Relatively undisturbed lowland dipterocarp forest in Kalimantan had close to 200 species of trees(>10 cm diameter)at a 1-ha sample scale(and 450 at a 10-ha scale).After repeated fires a sample area of 2 ha was needed to reach the same species richness.Regulation-based logging had little impact on tree species richness.In rubber agroforest with low-intensity management beyond rubber planting,50 tree species were found at a 1-ha scale and close to 100 species in 3 ha.The Kalimantan forest after repeated fires had a markedly higher fraction of lowwood-density trees(40%),but otherwise,all forests sampled were similar in overall wood density profiles.Selectively logged forest managed by a local community(village forest)and rubber agroforest in Sumatra contained larger fractions of heavy-wood-density trees.The majority of trees(50%–70%)had birds,bats and primates as dispersal agents in all sites.Selectively logged forests had higher fractions of autochorous species(15%)compared to other sites.Anemochorous(wind-dispersed)species,especially Macaranga lowii,were most common(20%)in lowland dipterocarp forest.Comparison between secondary forests and agroforests showed the influence of farmer selection regarding what is allowed to grow beyond the pole stage.Wood density and seed dispersal profiles can be used as degradation indicators of species assemblages across various disturbance levels and types,as they reflect the habitat quality of the surrounding landscape mosaics.

Assessment of causes and future deforestation in the mountainous tropical forest of Timor Island, Indonesia

The Mutis-Timau Forest Complex,one of the remaining mountainous tropical forest areas in Timor Island,eastern Indonesia that covers an area of 31,984 ha,tends to decrease gradually.Efforts to secure mountain forest functions and counteract the negative impact of declining forest areas are often constrained by data uncertainty on factors contributing to deforestation.For this reason,this study attempts to develop models of deforestation and predict future deforestation in the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex.We constructed models of deforestation that describe the relationship between deforestation and factors contributing to deforestation using spatial statistical models.In this model,we used the deforestation data for the 1987-2017 period obtained from a previous study as dependent variables and the potential causes of deforestation generated from Geographic Information System spatial analysis as independent variables.Using the probability of deforestation derived from the model,we predicted future deforestation under two different scenarios,namely,business-as-usual(as the reference scenario)and reducing emission fromdeforestation and forest degradation.Our findings showed that a positive relationship exists between probability of deforestation,distance to the settlement,and population density variables,whereas a negative relationship exists between likelihood of deforestation,elevation,slope,distance to the road,distance to the savanna,and forest management unit variables.During the 2017-2030 period,under the business-as-usual scenario,the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex will lose 1327.65 ha in forest area with an annual deforestation rate of 0.54%.Meanwhile,under the reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation scenario,the overall forest loss was estimated to be 1237.11 ha with an annual deforestation rate of 0.50%.The predicted area of avoided deforestation in 2017-2030 under the reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation scenario was 90.54 ha.Such data and information are important for the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex authority in prioritizing actions for combating deforestation and designing appropriate forest-related policies and supporting data for reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation programme or other incentive schemes in reducing deforestation.

Identification of chemical compounds in agarwood-producing species Aquilaria malaccensis and Gyrinops versteegii

Agarwood is a non-timber forest product found in tropical rain forests.It is a black and fragrant resin valued for the perfume industry and demand continues to increase.However,the Indonesian agarwood-producing species,Aquilaria malaccensis and Gyrinops versteegii do not automatically produce such quality resin.Bio-induction technology or inoculation using Fusarium solani is usually applied to these species to trigger resin production.This research aims to identify agarwood compounds formed in seedlings and trees of A.malaccensis and G.versteegii after these species were inoculated with the fungus F.solani.The chemical compounds were identified by comparing the patterns of mass spectra fragmentation in the sample and in previous studies.Five groups of agarwood compounds were identified:(1)sesquiterpen group-cisjasmone and aromadendrenepoxide;(2)chromones group-8-methoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)chromen-4-one and newly-discovered chromone derivative,7-(benzyloxy)-5-hydroxy-2-methylchromone found only in G.versteegii;(3)aromatic group-benzylacetone,guaiacol,p-ethylguaiacol,phenol,syringaldehyde,vanilin,furfuryl alcohol,and furfural;(4)fatty acid group-palmitic acid,oleic acid,and lauric acid;and,(5)triterpen group-squalene.

Elevated CO2 offsets the alteration of foliar chemicals(n-icosane,geranyl acetate,and elixene)induced by elevated O3 in three taxa of O3-tolerant eucalypts

Eucalypts are important forest resources in southwestern China,and may be tolerant to elevated ground-level ozone(O3)concentrations that can negatively affect plant growth.High CO2 may offset O3-induced effects by providing excess carbon to produce secondary metabolites or by inducing stomatal closure.Here,the effects of elevated CO2 and O3 on leaf secondary metabolites and other defense chemicals were studied by exposing seedlings of Eucalyptus globulus,E.grandis,and E.camaldulensis×E.deglupta to a factorial combination of two levels of O3(<10 nmol mol^(−1)and 60 nmol mol^(−1))and CO2(ambient:370μmol mol^(−1)and 600μmol mol^(−1))in open-top field chambers.GC-profiles of leaf extracts illustrated the effect of elevated O3 and the countering effect of high CO2 on compounds in leaf epicuticular wax and essential oils,i.e.,n-icosane,geranyl acetate and elixene,compounds known as a first-line defense against insect herbivores.n-Icosane may be involved in tolerance mechanisms of E.grandis and the hybrid,while geranyl acetate and elixene in the tolerance of E.globulus.Elevated O3 and CO2,singly or in combination,affected only leaf physiology but not biomass of various organs.Elevated CO2 impacted several leaf traits,including stomatal conductance,leaf mass per area,carbon,lignin,n-icosane,geranyl acetate and elixene.Limited effects of elevated O3 on leaf physiology(nitrogen,n-icosane,geranyl acetate,elixene)were commonly offset by elevated CO2.We conclude that E.globulus,E.grandis and the hybrid were tolerant to these O3 and CO2 treatments,and n-icosane,geranyl acetate and elixene may be major players in tolerance mechanisms of the tested species.

Evaluation of Appropriate Identification of Deforestation Agents and Drivers for Designing REDD+ Readiness Activities through an Examination of the Area around Gunung Palung National Park, Indonesia

For effective REDD+ implementation with multiple readiness activities, agents and drivers of deforestation and forest degradation needs to be identified appropriately. This study examined how such identification can be utilized for instituting REDD+ activities design. We examined this question by using satellite imagery analysis and socioeconomic surveying around Gunung Palung National Park in Indonesia. After recognizing the deforestation rate in the area, the characteristics of agents and drivers of deforestation were explored by using statistical analysis. Several canonical discriminant analyses revealed that the agents and drivers could be classified effectively by using socioeconomic type rather than ethnic groups or geographical location. A principal component analysis and the associated scatter diagrams showed that various agents and drivers exist in a given area within the study region. Finally, these efforts led to the suggestion of options for REDD+ readiness activities based on the diverse features and underlying causes.

The Impacts of Climate Change on the TraditionalAgriculture of Ethnic Minority in China

Climate change is affecting the IPLCs (Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities) around the world, including ethnic minorities in China, especially from agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and gathering, which are their main source of livelihoods. At the same time, IPLCs have rich traditional knowledge related to climate and its disasters, especially in their livelihoods. This review work examines the research about traditional knowledge associated to livelihood in monitoring and adapting to changing climatic conditions in ethnic minorities in China. Authors reviewed the research papers and monographs on the traditional agricultural livelihood of ethnic minorities in China, and divided different agricultural types on the basis of literature review. At the same time, authors focused on reviewing the traditional knowledge formed by ethnic minorities in the agriculture, especially the traditional knowledge related to weather and climate information. In authors’ findings authors realized that ethnic minorities are the practitioners of traditional agricultural practices. Their observation and perception come from real life and may not be “scientific”, but they directly reflect the impact of climate change on local livelihoods and contain wisdom to adapt to climate change. Ethnic minorities not only observe and perceive climate change, but also actively adapt to the impact of climate change on traditional livelihoods. In the process of adaptation, traditional knowledge plays a key role. This paper highlights how traditional knowledge can improve understanding of the influence of climate change on livelihood, and provide ideas to develop an equitable and effective plan to adapt the climate change. For the IPLCs, compared with the externally driven adaption options, they are more willing to take the community-based plan, because such plans will enable them to apply their traditional knowledge according to the geographical location and environment of their areas, so that their actions to adapt to climate change will be more effective.

Invasion of <i>Cestrum aurantiacum</i>Lindl. in Kenya

Many forest ecosystems in Kenya are at risk from the invasion of exotic plant species that pose numerous threats like decreasing biodiversity, deteriorating ecosystem processes and degrading their services. They also affect human, other animal health and various angles of the general economy. Cestrum aurantiacum Lindl. is a species with invasive reputation having been reported with very high biological success rating and has been noted in parts of Kenya in proportions that raise concerns. It has negative effects on other plants and animal species function and diversity. These impacts have been recorded in Kenya and elsewhere in this review, I synthesized data from studies that have examined the taxonomy of Cestrum aurantiacum, how this species become part of the ecosystem in Kenya and its ecological and economic impacts. I sourced relevant articles from the internet using keywords relating to the taxonomy, impacts and reports of invasive species and narrowed to records from different parts of Kenya. In this review, I looked across twenty-seven studies, on Cestrum aurantiacum in Kenya and went ahead to review one hundred and thirteen other articles for expanded discussion. Species data in published articles from different parts of Kenya were used as georefences to model overall species distribution which was noted to lie between Mt Kenya, Mt Elgon-Nandi hills and Cherangani hills. It was clearly established that there are major adverse effects associated with species. First, it can change native ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycle or hydrology and contribute significant role on the decrease of native species. A primary risk of Cestrum aurantiacum is that when this species alters the biodiversity, ecosystems are transformed into new configurations with unpredictable consequences to humans and other wildlife in totality. Despite the few positive applications of cestrum species, these can’t compensate for the enormous detrimental consequences associated with the species. Cestrum aurantiacum was introduced in Kenya as an ornamental plant in 1921 by the government and was distributed in several regions of high potential Kenya due to high level of hybridization within the genera, several variables of the species occur. By examining the level of information regarding the taxonomy and impacts of Cestrum aurantiacum on animal and plant species, this study provides pivotal information at the country level with a view to informing monitoring and conservation efforts, such as alien plant removal and control programmes, and ensuring that endemic terrestrial animal and plant diversity are maintained.

Improved allometric equations for tree aboveground biomass estimation in tropical dipterocarp forests of Kalimantan,Indonesia

Background： Currently, the common and feasible way to estimate the most accurate forest biomass requires ground measurements and allometric models.Previous studies have been conducted on allometric equations development for estimating tree aboveground biomass（AGB） of tropical dipterocarp forests（TDFs） in Kalimantan（Indonesian Borneo）.However, before the use of existing equations, a validation for the selection of the best allometric equation is required to assess the model bias and precision.This study aims at evaluating the validity of local and pantropical equations; developing new allometric equations for estimating tree AGB in TDFs of Kalimantan; and validating the new equations using independent datasets.Methods： We used 108 tree samples from destructive sampling to develop the allometric equations, with maximum tree diameter of 175 cm and another 109 samples from previous studies for validating our equations.We performed ordinary least squares linear regression to explore the relationship between the AGB and the predictor variables in the natural logarithmic form.Results： This study found that most of the existing local equations tended to be biased and imprecise, with mean relative error and mean absolute relative error more than 0.1 and 0.3, respectively.We developed new allometric equations for tree AGB estimation in the TDFs of Kalimantan.Through a validation using an independent dataset,we found that our equations were reliable in estimating tree AGB in TDF.The pantropical equation, which includes tree diameter, wood density and total height as predictor variables performed only slightly worse than our new models.Conclusions： Our equations improve the precision and reduce the bias of AGB estimates of TDFs.Local models developed from small samples tend to systematically bias.A validation of existing AGB models is essential before the use of the models.

Harmonious Coexistence—— For better protection of elephants, China can learn from Kenya

For better protection of elephants,China can learn from Kenya Over the past few months,with the northward migration of Asian elephants in southwest China’s Yunnan Province,Asian elephants have attracted the attention of the international community,and the preparation for the establishment of an Asian Elephant National Park in China has been pushed forward.With the promotion and establishment of elephant national parks all over the world,especially in African countries that have rich biodiversity resources,well preserved ecological environment and traditional knowledge,a lot of experience in elephant protection has been accumulated.

Antioxidant compounds produced by Pseudocercospora sp.ESL 02,an endophytic fungus isolated from Elaeocarpus sylvestris

Objective: To isolate endophytic fungi from Elaeocarpus sylvestris(E. sylvestris) and to isolate antioxidant compounds from a potential source fungus.Methods: Endophytic fungi were isolated from fresh leaves and stems of E. sylvestris and identified based on DNA analysis. 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH) radical scavenging activity was used to evaluate the antioxidant activity of the fungi. The potential antioxidant fungus was further studied to isolate antioxidant compounds. The isolated compounds were identified by melting point analysis, optical rotation, spectral analysis using a UV spectrophotometer, high resolution fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry, X-ray crystallography analysis,~1H nuclear magnetic resonance analysis and ^(13)C nuclear magnetic resonance analysis. The isolated compounds were evaluated with DPPH radical scavenging, reducing power, and b-carotene bleaching assays.Results: Seven endophytic fungi were successfully isolated from E. sylvestris and identified as Pestalotiopsis sp. EST 01, Pestalotiopsis sp. EST 02, Diaporthales sp. EST03, Meyerozyma sp. EST 04, Diaporthales sp. EST 05, Pestalotiopsis sp. ESL 01, and Pseudocercospora sp. ESL 02. Of the seven fungi, Pseudocercospora sp. ESL 02 had the highest antioxidant activity [IC50=(30.54 ± 0.88) mg/mL]. From that fungus, two compounds identified as terreic acid(1) and 6-methylsalicylic acid(2) were isolated with an IC50 of DPPH radical scavenging activity of(0.22 ± 0.02) mmol/L and(3.87 ± 0.27)mmol/L, respectively. The compounds also had good activities from the reducing power and b-carotene bleaching assays.Conclusions: The Pseudocercospora sp. ESL 02 fungus isolated from E. sylvestris looks promising as a novel source of terreic acid.

HARMONIOUS COEXISTENCE

In upgrading its protection of wild elephants, China can look to Kenya Over the past few months, with the northward migration of Asian elephants in southwest China’s Yunnan Province, the wild species has caught the eye of the international community, and the preparation for the establishment of an Asian elephant national park in China has been pushed forward.