Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Lower-Level Health Care Facilities of Dar es Salaam Region in Tanzania: Status towards Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and Way Forward

Background: Improving Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in health care settings is a critical prerequisite for achieving national health goals and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The World Health Organization (WHO) has set a target for each United Nations member state to reach by 2030. Each member state is required to reach by 2022, 2025 and 2030 at least 60%, 80% and 100%, respectively of basic level of service of the five elements which are water, sanitation, hygiene, waste management and environmental cleaning. Methods: This study aimed to evaluate and document the current state of basic water, sanitation, and hygiene services in all lower-level health care facilities in the Dar es Salaam region of Tanzania as of July 2022. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 99 public dispensaries in the Dar es Salaam region’s five councils: Ubungo, Kigamboni, Kinondoni and Temeke Municipalities, and Ilala City. The interviewee form and observational checklists were both digitalized using the Kobo tool software. The respondents were health care facility in-charges or nurse in-charges. Data were downloaded, validated, and imported to Stata version 15 for analysis. Results: The basic WASH level per JMP is far below the target in 2022. Each member state by 2022 is required to reach at least 60% of the basic level of service of each element. We found a low coverage of basic WASH in the 99 dispensaries included in this study. The basic WASH coverage was met in only 10 (10.1%) of the dispensaries, while the remaining 89 (89.9%) dispensaries fall on limited WASH services. Conclusion: This study revealed lower coverage of basic WASH services in dispensaries. An urgent need is required to improve the status of WASH in all the dispensaries and facilitate the provision of quality health care services, patient safety and reduce health care associated infections.

Seroprevalence of SARS-COV-2 Exposure among “High-Risk” Populations (Healthcare Workers, People Who Attend Markets, and School Children) in Zanzibar

In Zanzibar, from the start of the pandemic in March 2020 to the time of sampling in December 2020, SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence data was limited. We conducted a seroprevalence study to evaluate the magnitude of SARS-CoV-2 exposure among healthcare workers, school children, and people who attended general markets in Zanzibar. The objectives of the study were to analyse the total antibodies from selected higher-risk population groups in order to determine magnitude in SARS CoV-2 exposure. Blood samples were collected from eligible and consented participants (adults and children), and their serum was analyzed for total antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 using ELISA. A questionnaire was used to collect participants’ demographic and clinical data. The overall SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence across all age groups was 33%, and a higher seroprevalence was observed in the 40 - 49 years’ age group relative to other ages as well as in those who attended markets. A runny nose (18.8% of participants) was the most frequently reported SARS-CoV-2 infection-related symptom. Multivariable analysis showed significantly higher odds of infection in people living in urban districts. The findings provide insight into SARS-CoV-2 infection among school children, health workers, and people who attended markets in Zanzibar in the early stages of the pandemic. Exposure in these groups might have been influenced by infection and prevention strategies taken by the government, as well as shopping behavior, school overcrowding, and population density in urban settings. The study had methodological limitations, including cross-sectional design. Further, well-designed, longitudinal studies are recommended to understand exposure and transmission at a population level.

Formulation of Mathematical Model for TB Transmission in Zoonotic Areas with Existence of Endemic Equilibrium

A mathematical model incorporating animal TB and Human TB transmission is formulated and analysed in order to determine the role of animal TB and human TB in the overall TB transmission and also, to determine the parameters which govern the transmission of the TB disease. The model has five classes namely susceptible, exposed animal TB, and exposed human TB, infectious and recovery. The model assumed that there are two classes for infected individuals, those who acquired TB through animal and those who acquire TB from human. Qualitative results show that the model has the disease-free equilibrium and at least one endemic equilibrium that is locally asymptotically stable. The study includes numerical simulations as a way of supporting the analytical results. Graphical results indicate that animal TB has major contribution on overall TB transmission and the TB transmission can be reduced by ensuring intervention to both Animal TB and Human TB. Furthermore the equations indicate that there is at least one endemic equilibrium which translates that t animal and human have the contribution on TB transmission. This shows that both animals and humans together with fast progressors have contribution on TB transmissions.

The Contribution of Tanzanian National Parks in Controlling the Vectors of Sleeping Sickness

This paper summarises efforts to control Sleeping sickness [Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT)] by Tsetse flies and Trypanosomiaisis (T & T) control for the 7 consecutive years although started a decade ago in Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA). These efforts are critical for curbing HAT incidences and HAT epidemics. HAT cases have had profound negative impacts on human health, affecting local residents and international travel as well as tourism industry resulting into human and animal health burden and reduction in tourism income. Understanding the current efforts is essential in the proper planning and decision making on developing effective control strategy against T & T control. In this paper, we summarize the recent efforts in the control of T & T in National Parks and discuss the constraints faced. The information will enable TANAPA and other concerned authorities to make informed decision on optimal ways of controlling HAT in National Parks. The results show that much control efforts have so far concentrated in Serengeti, Ruaha, Tarangire and Katavi National Parks where tsetse fly challenges are high. A total 21,143 (average 3020) Insecticide Treated Targets (ITT) were deployed in different areas in the parks and 82,899 (average 20,725) cars entering these parks were sprayed from 2007/2008 to 2014/2015 and 2007/2008 to 2010/2011 respectively. Deployed ITTs lead to a drastic reduction of FTDs of the two dominant tsetse species to 1.3 and 1.4 of G. swynnertoni and G. pallidipes respectively, and the decline was significant at P = 0.011. The major challenges faced include tsetse re-invasion in controlled areas;resurgence of HAT cases when control efforts are relaxed, ITT maintenance and inadequate health education programs. The control strategy should be continuous and scaled up as failure to implement an effective and sustainable system for HAT control will increase the risk of new epidemic that would impede tourism development.

禽流感病毒H5N1血凝素蛋白的重组牛痘病毒表达

目的研究H5 I151F和H5 I151F＋A134V＋E186D两种氨基酸变异对血凝素蛋白（HA）亲人受体结合的影响，并获得该HA。方法构建载体pRB21’，共感染／转染vp37^-牛痘病毒vRB12和pRB21’，基因同源重组牛痘病毒表达HA，Western免疫印迹法鉴定。结果获得了克隆有H5HA全长基因片段的载体pRB21’，构建了2种重组牛痘病毒re-VV H5 I151F和re-VV H5 I151F＋A134V＋E186D，且能在被感染细胞膜表达这两种HA。结论首次通过构建重组牛痘病毒成功表达了禽流感病毒H5N1的H5HA，为进一步研究禽流感病毒人传人的可能性奠定了基础。

Down syndrome and the molecular pathogenesis resulting from trisomy of human chromosome 21

Chromosome copy number aberrations, anueploidies, are common in the human population but generally lethal. However, trisomy of human chromosome 21 is compatible with life and people born with this form of aneuploidy manifest the features of Down syndrome, named after Langdon Down who was a 19th century British physician who first described a group of people with this disorder. Down syndrome includes learning and memory deficits in all cases, as well as many other features which vary in penetrance and expressivity in different people. While Down syndrome clearly has a genetic cause - the extra dose of genes on chromosome 21-we do not know which genes are important for which aspects of the syndrome, which biochemical pathways are disrupted, or, generally how design therapies to ameliorate the effects of these disruptions. Recently, with new insights gained from studying mouse models of Down syndrome, specific genes and pathways are being shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of the disorder. This is opening the way for exciting new studies of potential therapeutics for aspects of Down syndrome, particularly the learning and memory deficits.

Spatial distribution of sand flies(Diptera: Psychodidae; Larroussius group), the vectors of visceral leishmaniasis in Northwest of Iran

Objective: To determine spatial distribution of sand flies(Diptera: Psychodidae; Larroussius group), the vectors of visceral leishmaniasis in Ardabil province, Northwest of Iran.Methods: Sand flies were collected using sticky traps from the 30 selected points in Ardabil province, during May-November 2017.The MaxEnt model in GIS software was used for modeling.Results: A total of 2 794 specimens of sand flies were collected, of which 33% were Larroussius subgenus sand flies.Phlebotomus kandelakii and Phlebotomus wenyoni were the highest and lowest collected species respectively.Based on the modeling, four areas in the province were identified with more than 70% probability of the presence of Larroussius group vectors which were at risk of visceral leishmaniasis disease transmission.Conclusions: The distribution of Larroussius subgenus sand flies was observed in all parts of Ardabil.But the northern parts of the province(Germi and Bilesavar counties) as well as central part(Ardabil and Meshkinshahr counties) were of great importance in terms of the presence of Larroussius subgenus sand flies and the possibility of transmission of the visceral leishmaniasis.

Visualization of bHLH transcription factor interactions in living mammalian cell nuclei and developing chicken neural tube by FRET

基本 helix-loop-helix (bHLH ) 的成员基因家庭在脊椎动物神经发生起重要作用。在这研究，共焦的基于显微镜学的荧光回声精力转移(烦恼) 被用来在各种各样的生理的条件下面监视 bHLH 蛋白质蛋白质相互作用。织物特定的 bHLH 使活跃之物， NeuroD1， Mash1， Neurogenin1 (Ngn1 ) ， Neurogenin2 (Ngn2 ) ，和无所不在的表示 E47 蛋白质与提高的黄荧光蛋白质(EYFP ) 被标注并且分别地提高了青色荧光蛋白质(ECFP ) 。潜水艇 bHLH 熔化蛋白质的细胞的本地化和活动性在 HEK293 房间被检验。由短暂 transfection 并且在 ovo electroporation，四织物特定的 bHLH 使活跃之物和 E47 蛋白质在 HEK293 房间和发展中的小鸡胚胎是过去表示的神经试管。与漂白的领受人相片方法，烦恼能在 transfected 的原子核在这些 bHLH 蛋白质对之间被检测房间和发展中的神经试管。Mash1/E47 和 Ngn2/E47 烦恼对更高出现烦恼效率在中间并且小鸡胚胎的侧面的一半神经试管分别地。它建议这些 bHLH 蛋白质对在特定的区域与他们的下游的目标基因的规章的元素形成了功能的 DNA 蛋白质建筑群。这个工作将帮助一个在 vivo 理解 bHLH 因素的行为。

Evaluation of Antimycobacterial Activity of Higenamine Using Galleria mellonella as an In Vivo Infection Model

The Phytochemical investigation on MeOH extract on the bark of Aristolochia brasiliensis Mart.&Zucc(Aristolochi-aceae)led to the isolation of major compound(1)as light brown grainy crystals.The compound was identified as 1-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-6,7-diol(higenamine)on the basis of spectroscopic analysis,including 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy.The compound was evaluated for its antimycobacterial activity against Mycobacterium indicus pranii(MIP),using Galleria mellonella larva as an in vivo infection model.The survival of MIP infected larvae after a single dose treatment of 100 mg/kg body weight of higenamine was 80%after 24 h.Quantitatively the compound exhibited a dose dependent activity,as evidenced by the reduction of colony density from 10^(5) to 10^(3) CFU for test concentrations of 50,100,150 and 200 mg/kg body weight respectively.The IC50 value for higenamine was 161.6 mg/kg body weight as calculated from a calibration curve.Further analysis showed that,a complete inhibition of MIP in the G.mellonella could be achieved at 334 mg/kg body weight.Despite the fact that MIP has been found to be highly resistant against isoniazid(INH)in an in vitro assay model,in this study the microbe was highly susceptible to this standard anti-TB drug.The isolation of higenamine from the genus Aristolochia and the method used to evaluate its in vivo antimycobacterial activity in G.mellonella are herein reported for the first time.

Anti TB drug resistance in Tanga,Tanzania:a cross sectional facility base prevalence among pulmonary TB patients

Objective:To determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with drug resistance tuberculosis(TB) at facility-base level in Tanga,Tanzania.Methods:A total of 79 Mycobacterium tuberculosis(MTB) isolates included in the study were collected from among372(312 new and 60 previously treated) TB suspects self referred to four TB clinics during a prospective study conducted from November 2012 to January 2013.Culture and drug susceptibility test of the isolates was performed at the institute of medical microbiology and epidemiology of infectious diseases,University hospital,Leipzig,Germany.Data on the patient's characteristics were obtained from structured questionnaire administered to the patients who gave informed verbal consent.Unadjusted bivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the risk factors for drug resistant-TB.The significance level was determined at P<0.05.Results:The overall proportions of any drug resistance and MDRTB were 12.7%and 6.3%respectively.The prevalence of any drug resistance and MDRTB among new cases were 11.4%and 4.3%respectively,whereas among previously treated cases was 22.2%respectively.Previously treated patients were more likely to develop anti-TB drug resistance.There was no association between anti-TB drug resistances(including MDRTB) with the risk factors analysed.Conclusions:High proportions of anti TB drug resistance among new and previously treated cases observed in this study suggest that,additional efforts still need to be done in identifying individual cases at facility base level for improved TB control programmes and drug resistance survey should continuously be monitored in the country.

Liver disease and COVID-19:The link with oxidative stress,antioxidants and nutrition

Varying degrees of liver injuries have been reported in patients infected with the severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2(SARS-CoV-2).In general,oxidative stress is actively involved in initiation and progression of liver damage.The liver metabolizes various compounds that produce free radicals.Maintaining the oxidative/antioxidative balance is important in coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)patients.Antioxidant vitamins,essential trace elements and food compounds,such as polyphenols,appear to be promising agents,with effects in oxidative burst.Deficiency of these nutrients suppresses immune function and increases susceptibility to COVID-19.Daily micronutrient intake is necessary to support anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects but for immune function may be higher than current recommended dietary intake.Antioxidant supplements(β-carotene,vitamin A,vitamin C,vitamin E,and selenium)could have a potential role in patients with liver damage.Available evidence suggests that supplementing the diet with a combination of micronutrients may help to optimize immune function and reduce the risk of infection.Clinical trials based on the associations of diet and SARS-CoV-2 infection are lacking.Unfortunately,it is not possible to definitively determine the dose,route of administration and best timing to intervene with antioxidants in COVID-19 patients because clinical trials are still ongoing.Until then,hopefully,this review will enable clinicians to understand the impact of micronutrient dietary intake and liver status assessment in COVID-19 patients.

Distribution and ecological aspects of sand flies(Diptera:Psychodidae) species in Northeastern Iran

Objective:To determine both the distribution and the ecological characteristics of sand flies in Golestan Province,northeast of Iran in 2016.Methods:In this study,34 villages were selected based on their geographical conditions.Sticky paper traps were used for collecting the sand flies.Sampling was carried out in each of villages from May to November.In each village,60 traps for indoors and 60 for outdoors were monthly installed.The species of all collected sand flies were determined using approved morphological keys.Pearson coefficient correlation was used to find the relationship between the number of collected Phlebotomus papatasi from different villages and incidence rate of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis as well as the number of positive cases of the disease.The altitude of the studied villages was extracted from digital elevation model of the area using GIS and vegetation cover density index of the province was extracted from Modis satellite imagery and distribution map of sand flies drown up.Results:Overall,5 428 sand flies were collected and identified,belonging to 18 species.Phlebotomus wenyoni was reported for the first time from the area in this study.The frequency of sand flies in the villages located in northeast of the Golestan province(the plateau area,lower altitude,arid and semi-arid climates,and lower vegetation cover density),were more than other villages in this province.There was a significant correlation between the number of collected Phlebotomus papatasi and incidence rate of the zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis cases in different villages(r=0.837,P=0.019) as well as the number of positive cases of the disease(r=0.688,P<0.001).Conclusions:In the northeaster areas of Golestan Province which is known as the endemic foci of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis,the abundance of sand flies were more and the conditions for their growth and development were more appropriate.

环孢霉素A在体内抑制T淋巴细胞的可逆性

为了阐明环孢霉素A(CsA)在体内的作用机制,本文以甲型流感病毒感染的小鼠为模型,在小鼠感染的-1、1、3、5、7、9天于颈背部皮下注射1mg CsA或溶剂。结果表明,CsA处理有利于诱导以肺部高病毒滴度和低病毒清除率为特征的病毒携带状态。用CsA处理的小鼠,在感染后第14天,其脾细胞中Tc细胞的抗病毒杀伤活性和TM细胞诱生淋巴因子(IL-2和IL-3)的能力以及特异性抗体应答均受到强烈的抑制,但在感染后第21天恢复正常。证明CsA在体内能可逆性地抑制淋巴细胞的功能。

Diprenylated Indole Alkaloids from Fruits of Hexalobus monopetalus

New hexalobine type alkaloid,5-(200,300-epoxy-300-methylbutyl)-3-(30-hydroxy-30-methyl-10-acetyloxy-but-20-yl)indole(1)alongside the known hexalobines 3-(20,30-dihydroxy-30-methylbutyl)-5-(300-methylcrotonoyl)indole(2),3,5-hexalobine C(3)and 3,5-hexalobine D(4)were isolated from fruits of Hexalobus monopetalus.Compounds 3 and 4 exhibited antifungal activity against Candida albicans.

Antifungal Enantiomeric Styrylpyrones from Sanrafaelia ruffonammari and Ophrypetalum odoratum

Phytochemical investigation of Sanrafaelia ruffonammari Verd and Ophrypetalum odoratum Diels that belongs to the rare genera confined to East African coastal forests led to the isolation of enantiomeric styrylpyrone dimer,(±)-5-methoxy-7-phenyl-[4-methoxy-2-pyronyl]-1-(E)-styryl-2-oxabicyclo-[4.2.0]-octa-4-en-3-one(1)alongside(?)-6-styryl-7,8-epoxy-4-methoxypyran-2-one(2)and the enantiomeric(?)-(3)and(-)-6-styryl-7,8-dihydroxy-4-methoxypyran-2-ones(4).Their structures were established by means of spectroscopic methods.In this paper we reveal for the first time the occurrence of styrylpyrones in East African biodiversity.(?)-6-Styryl-7,8-epoxy-4-methoxypyran-2-one(2)and the dihydroxystyrylpyrone enantiomer(3)showed in vitro antifungal activity against Candida albicans at a concentration of 24.4 and 26.2 lM with zones of inhibition of 17 and 9 mm,respectively.Compound 2 exhibited strong activity in the brine shrimp test with LC50=1.7 lg/mL.Their high cytotoxic and antifungal activities render them candidates for further scientific attention for drug development programs against cancer and microbial infections.

Antibacterial Activity of Honey from Wild Species of Stingless Bees;<i>Plebenia hylderbrandii</i>and <i>Meliponula bocandei</i>

One of the serious problems the world is facing today is the antimicrobial resistance on available antibiotics by most bacterial pathogens and the rising cost of finding effective antimicrobial agents. In recent years, efforts to find new drugs especially from natural sources have been boosted by the demand for an effective cure for infectious diseases. Only the antibacterial activity of apis mellifera honey and not stingless bee honey from western Kenya has been reported. This study was therefore carried out to determine the effect of Plebenia hylderbrandii and Meliponula bocandei honey samples on the growth of control;sensitive cases of Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923). Different honey concentrations (1.18% - 17.65% v/v) of the two samples were tested against the two micro-organisms. The samples were screened for their antibacterial potential against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by agar well dilution method. The Partial inhibitory concentration (PIC), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values were determined by in vitro method. The inhibitory effect of Plebenia hylderbrandii honey on E. coli and S. aureus growth was apparent at concentrations 3.53% and 1.76% (v/v) respectively. On the other hand, the inhibitory effect of Meliponula bocandei honey on S. aureus growth was at concentration 16.47% (v/v). Plebenia hylderbrandii honey had bactericidal effect on both E. coli and S. aureus at concentrations 4.71% and 2.35% (v/v) respectively. However, Meliponula bocandei honey exerted bactericidal effect on S. aureus only at 16.47% (v/v) concentration. Plebenia hylderbrandii honey had higher antibacterial potency and can be a potential source of antibacterial substances. Moreover, the honeys tested in this study showed great antibacterial potential for S. aureus.

IS986 DNA指纹法应用于香港肺结核病人短程化学治疗前、中和后的连续分支杆菌分离株

把总共266株结核分支杆菌分离株做DNA RFLP分析。分离株是从短程化疗并随访2年的病人的每月痰培养中获得的,分别来自42名短程化疗后复发的病人和42名化疗后仅一次培养阳性的病人,包括治疗前分离的1株和治疗期间最后一次分离的1株分离株,以及复发期间相距至少2个月培养的2株式化疗后分离的1株分离株。在DNA RFLP分析前先编码,然后用肉眼观察相同的或几乎相同的带型进行分组。译码后,每位病人显然是被1个具有不同带型(即指纹图谱)的菌株感染的。100对治疗前分离株与化疗期间最后一次的培养菌株或复发期间第一次分离株与第二次分离株的配对比较中,15对带型不同;其中4对复查后发现是由于阅读错误所致(错误率1.5％),其余11对(11％)带型明显不同。42对复发病人中,5对(12％)复发分离株的指纹图谱与治疗前分离株有显著差别。相反,40对化疗后的孤立的阳性培养菌株与最初的分离株的配对比较中,36对(90％)的指纹图谱有显著差别。无法确定这其余的10—12％的指纹差别多少是由于临床混合感染,多少是实验室交叉污染所致。84名病人的连续分离株中,7名(8％)显示一步1或2条带的增多或减少,提示指纹图型的演变。RELP指纹方法作为鉴别菌株的手段显然优于噬菌体分型。

Effect of Geographical location on yield and chemical composition of essential oils from three Eucalyptus species growing in Tanzania

Chemical composition of the essential oils (EOs) is dependent on the plant species and varieties, and within the same variety, from geographical region. Knowledge of the factors that determine the chemical variability and yield for each species are very important in particular for commercially important species, to optimize the conditions that may affect yields and quality of essential oils. In addition to the commercial importance of the variability in yield and composition, the possible changes are also important when the essential oils and volatiles are used as chemotaxonomic tools. Therefore it is important to characterize essential oils native to Tanzania for commercial and therapeutic purpose. In the present study we investigated the variation in the yield and chemical composition of the essential oils isolated from air dried leaves of three Eucalyptus species namely Eucalyptus saligna, Eucalyptus citriodora and Eucalyptus camaldulensis collected from two different regions of Tanzania namely Morogoro and Lushoto. The steam-distilled essential oil content of E. saligna, E. citriodora and E. camaldulensis Morogoro were 0.6%(v/w), 1.68%(v/w) and 0.80%(v/w) respectively while from Lushoto are 0.30%, 1.22 and 0.36%(v/w) respectively. Using GC/MS,α-pinene (46.72%) and p-cymene (43.61%) were identified as the most abundant chemical constituents of E. saligna from Morogoro and Lushoto respectively. Citronellal (82.24% and 60.41% respectively) is the main constituents of E. citriodora from Morogoro and Lushoto respectively while p-cymene (52.59% and 64.02%) is the main constituents of E. camaldulensis.

Time for a Nuclear Meeting： Protein Trafficking and Chromatin Dynamics Intersect in the Plant Circadian System

生理节奏的钟调停改编到 24-h 世界。在 Arabidopsis，很生理节奏钟的部件在原子核充当 transcriptional 管理者并且产生抄本累积的有韵律的摆动。在这评论，我们集中于调制生理节奏钟的部件的活动的 post-transcriptional 事件，例如 phosphorylation， ubiquitination 和调停 proteasome 的降级，在细胞的本地化的变化，和 proteinprotein 相互作用。这些进程被发现了为生理节奏的功能，不是仅仅在植物，而且在另外的生理节奏的系统必要。而且，表明网络的光和钟高度被互连。在原子核，光和钟部件一起工作产生 transcriptional 节奏，导致预定的一般控制种生理的过程。