Disentangling the effects of management and climate change on habitat suitability for saproxylic species in boreal forests

Forest degradation induced by intensive forest management and temperature increase by climate change are resulting in biodiversity decline in boreal forests.Intensive forest management and high-end climate emission scenarios can further reduce the amount and diversity of deadwood,the limiting factor for habitats for saproxylic species in European boreal forests.The magnitude of their combined effects and how changes in forest management can affect deadwood diversity under a range of climate change scenarios are poorly understood.We used forest growth simulations to evaluate how forest management and climate change will individually and jointly affect habitats of red-listed saproxylic species in Finland.We simulated seven forest management regimes and three climate scenarios(reference,RCP4.5 and RCP8.5)over 100 years.Management regimes included set aside,continuous cover forestry,business-as-usual(BAU)and four modifications of BAU.Habitat suitability was assessed using a speciesspecific habitat suitability index,including 21 fungal and invertebrate species groups.“Winner”and“loser”species were identified based on the modelled impacts of forest management and climate change on their habitat suitability.We found that forest management had a major impact on habitat suitability of saproxylic species compared to climate change.Habitat suitability index varied by over 250%among management regimes,while overall change in habitat suitability index caused by climate change was on average only 2%.More species groups were identified as winners than losers from impacts of climate change(52%–95%were winners,depending on the climate change scenario and management regime).The largest increase in habitat suitability index was achieved under set aside(254%)and the climate scenario RCP8.5(>2%),while continuous cover forestry was the most suitable regime to increase habitat suitability of saproxylic species(up to+11%)across all climate change scenarios.Our results show that close-to-nature management regimes(e.g.,continuous cover forestry and set aside)can increase the habitat suitability of many saproxylic boreal species more than the basic business-as-usual regime.This suggests that biodiversity loss of many saproxylic species in boreal forests can be mitigated through improved forest management practices,even as climate change progresses.

On the Possible Contribution of Natural Climatic Fluctuations to the Global Warming of the Last 135 Years

A number of numerical experiments with artificial random signals (the second order autoregressive processes), which have important statistical properties similar to that of the observed instrumental temperature (1850-2015), were carried out. The results show that in frame of the selected mathematical model the return period of climatic events, analogous to the current global warming (linear increase of temperature for 0.95°C during the last 135 years) is 2849-5180 years (one event per 2849-5180 years). This means that global warming (GW) of the last 135 years can unlikely be fully explained by inherent oscillations of the climatic system. It was found however, that natural fluctuations of climate may appreciably contribute to the GW. The return period of climatic episodes with 0.5°C warming during the 135 years (half of the observed GW) was less than 500 years. The result testifies that the role of external factors (emission of greenhouse gases, solar activity etc.) in the GW could be less than often presumed.

Using Individual, ApoE Genotype-Based Dietary and Physical Activity Advice to Promote Healthy Lifestyles in Finland—Impacts on Cardiovascular Risk Markers

Aim: There is increasing demand for individualized health advice. The aim of this study was to assess the effects on cardiovascular risk markers of receiving personal genetic health information, using apoE genotypes as a tool for promoting lifestyle changes. ApoE was chosen because it had a significant impact on lipid metabolism and cholesterol absorption, all factors for CVD. Methods: This study was a one-year explanatory intervention study for healthy adults, aged between 20 - 67 years old (n = 106). Their clinical markers (serum lipids, blood glucose, blood pressure, Body Mass Index, body fat percentage and waist circumference) were measured three times during the intervention. The clinical effects were assessed for three groups: a high risk group (ε 4+, n = 16);a low-risk group (&#949?4-, n = 35);and a control group (n = 55). Results: The triglyceride values and waist circumference lowered more in &#949?4+ compared with the control group (p < 0.05;alpha value 0.005) during the intervention. Conclusion: The personal genetic information, based on apoE, may have positive effects on cardiovascular risk markers (e.g., improvement in triglyceride values). The individual health information, based on genotyping could be a potential option in the prevention of CVD. More research is required on how to utilize genotype-based health information in the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases.

Effect of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and Bacillus subtilis on fermentation, dynamics of bacterial community and their functional shifts of whole-plant corn silage

Background:Bacillus amyloliquefaciens(BA)and Bacillus subtilis(BS)are usually used as feed supplements directly or bacterial inoculants in biological feeds for animals.However,few research have reported the effects of BA and BS on fermentation characteristics and bacterial community successions of whole-plant corn silage during ensiling.If the BA and BS inoculants have positive effects on silages,then they could not only improve fermentation characteristics,but also deliver BA or BS viable cells to ruminants,which would play its probiotic effect.Therefore,the objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of BA and BS on the fermentation,chemical characteristics,bacterial community and their metabolic pathway of whole-plant corn silage.Results:Freshly chopped whole-plant corn was inoculated without or with BA and BS,respectively,and ensiled for1,3,7,14 and 60 d.Results showed that BA and BS inoculations increased lactic acid concentrations of whole-plant corn silages compared with control,and BA inoculation decreased acetic acid concentrations,whereas BS inoculation decreased fiber contents and increased crude protein(CP)content.Higher water-soluble carbohydrate contents and lower starch contents were observed in BA-and BS-inoculated silages compared with that in control.The decreased CP content and increased non-protein nitrogen content were observed in BA-inoculated silage,which was consistent with the higher amino acid metabolism abundances observed in BA-inoculated silage.In addition,it was noteworthy that BA and BS inoculations increased the metabolism of cofactors and vitamins,and decreased the relative abundances of drug resistance:antimicrobial pathways.We also found that the bacterial metabolism pathways were clearly separated into three clusters based on the ensiling times of whole-plant corn silage in the present study.There were no significant differences in bacterial community compositions among the three groups during ensiling.However,BA and BS inoculations decreased the relative abundances of undesirable bacteria such as Acetobacter and Acinetobacter.Conclusion:Our findings suggested that the BS strain was more suitable as silage inoculants than the BA strain in whole-plant corn silage in this study.

乙酰化半纤维素用于提高涂布纸张的性能

从云杉中经热水抽提出的聚半乳糖葡萄糖甘露糖(GGM)乙酰化后具有一定水溶性。将其涂布于食品包装纸上,结果表明GGM和乙酰化GGM均可提高食品包装纸的力学性能,且乙酰化GGM对力学性能的作用更好,涂有GGM和乙酰化GGM的纸有很好的耐油性能,且涂乙酰化GGM比涂GGM的纸具有更好的耐油性。

Trade-offs between wood production and forest grouse habitats in two regions with distinctive landscapes

Background:Forest management affects the viability of forest grouse populations,causing alterations to habitat quality.At the regional level,common targets for wood harvesting and safeguarding of specific habitats are negotiated between various stakeholders.Analysing potential trade-offs between forest grouse habitats and wood production in the region could support resource-smart decision making.Methods:In this paper,we compiled trade-off curves represented as production possibility frontiers demonstrating the relationship between forest grouse habitat area and wood removal,using a Finnish forestry dynamics model and the Finnish Multi-Source National Forest Inventory.For the modelling of forest grouse habitats,a landscape-level occurrence model based on nationwide wildlife triangle census data was used.Five alternative forest scenarios in terms of wood removal were compiled for two study areas in Finland representing two different landscape structures.Results and conclusions:Results showed that impacts on forest grouse habitats were case-specific.In the southern study area,increasing the roundwood harvesting rate affected grouse habitats more strongly as forests were already fragmented for other land uses and became more spruce-dominated over time.If the maximum sustainable removal rate was implemented,predicted grouse habitat area was 55%less than in a no-removal scenario.In the eastern study area,a more heavily forested region,the decrease was far lower at 22%.Scenario results were also compared to levels of recorded(business as usual)wood removal and that envisaged by valid regional forestry programmes,and their sustainability in terms of grouse habitat area was discussed.The production possibility frontiers calculated in this study support the evaluation of the loss of suitable habitat caused by different wood harvesting rates,or vice versa,the economic cost of increasing habitat areas.

Predicting the provisioning potential of forest ecosystem services using airborne laser scanning data and forest resource maps

Background: Remote sensing-based mapping of forest Ecosystem Service(ES) indicators has become increasingly popular. The resulting maps may enable to spatially assess the provisioning potential of ESs and prioritize the land use in subsequent decision analyses. However, the mapping is often based on readily available data, such as land cover maps and other publicly available databases, and ignoring the related uncertainties.Methods: This study tested the potential to improve the robustness of the decisions by means of local model fitting and uncertainty analysis. The quality of forest land use prioritization was evaluated under two different decision support models: either using the developed models deterministically or in corporation with the uncertainties of the models.Results: Prediction models based on Airborne Laser Scanning(ALS) data explained the variation in proxies of the suitability of forest plots for maintaining biodiversity, producing timber, storing carbon, or providing recreational uses(berry picking and visual amenity) with RMSEs of 15%–30%, depending on the ES. The RMSEs of the ALS-based predictions were 47%–97%of those derived from forest resource maps with a similar resolution. Due to applying a similar field calibration step on both of the data sources, the difference can be attributed to the better ability of ALS to explain the variation in the ES proxies.Conclusions: Despite the different accuracies, proxy values predicted by both the data sources could be used for a pixel-based prioritization of land use at a resolution of 250 m~2, i.e., in a considerably more detailed scale than required by current operational forest management. The uncertainty analysis indicated that maps of the ES provisioning potential should be prepared separately based on expected and extreme outcomes of the ES proxy models to fully describe the production possibilities of the landscape under the uncertainties in the models.

Comparison of the local pivotal method and systematic sampling for national forest inventories

Background:The local pivotal method(LPM)utilizing auxiliary data in sample selection has recently been proposed as a sampling method for national forest inventories(NFIs).Its performance compared to simple random sampling(SRS)and LPM with geographical coordinates has produced promising results in simulation studies.In this simulation study we compared all these sampling methods to systematic sampling.The LPM samples were selected solely using the coordinates(LPMxy)or,in addition to that,auxiliary remote sensing-based forest variables(RS variables).We utilized field measurement data(NFI-field)and Multi-Source NFI(MS-NFI)maps as target data,and independent MS-NFI maps as auxiliary data.The designs were compared using relative efficiency(RE);a ratio of mean squared errors of the reference sampling design against the studied design.Applying a method in NFI also requires a proven estimator for the variance.Therefore,three different variance estimators were evaluated against the empirical variance of replications:1)an estimator corresponding to SRS;2)a Grafström-Schelin estimator repurposed for LPM;and 3)a Matérn estimator applied in the Finnish NFI for systematic sampling design.Results:The LPMxy was nearly comparable with the systematic design for the most target variables.The REs of the LPM designs utilizing auxiliary data compared to the systematic design varied between 0.74–1.18,according to the studied target variable.The SRS estimator for variance was expectedly the most biased and conservative estimator.Similarly,the Grafström-Schelin estimator gave overestimates in the case of LPMxy.When the RS variables were utilized as auxiliary data,the Grafström-Schelin estimates tended to underestimate the empirical variance.In systematic sampling the Matérn and Grafström-Schelin estimators performed for practical purposes equally.Conclusions:LPM optimized for a specific variable tended to be more efficient than systematic sampling,but all of the considered LPM designs were less efficient than the systematic sampling design for some target variables.The Grafström-Schelin estimator could be used as such with LPMxy or instead of the Matérn estimator in systematic sampling.Further studies of the variance estimators are needed if other auxiliary variables are to be used in LPM.

Optimal plot design in a multipurpose forest inventory

Background： We explore the factors affecting the optimal plot design （size and type as well as the subsample tree selection strategies within a plot） and their relative importance in defining the optimal plot design in amultipurpose forest inventory. The factors include time used to lay out the plot and to make the tree measurements within the plot, the between-plot variation of each of the variables of interest in the area, and the measurement and model errors for the different variables. Methods： We simulate different plot types and sizes and subsample tree selection strategies on measuredtest areas from North Lapland. The plot types used are fixed-radius, concentric and relascope plots. Weselect the optimal type and size first at plot level using a cost-plus-loss approach and then at cluster level byminimizing the weighted standard error with fixed budget. Results： As relascope plots are ve~/efficient at the plot level for volume and basal area, and fixed-radius plots for stems per ha, the optimal plot type strongly depends on the relative importance of these variables. The concentric plot seems to be a good compromise between these two in many cases. The subsample tree selection strategy was more important in selecting optimal plot than many other factors. In cluster level, the most important factor is the transfer time between plots. Conclusions： While the optimal radius of plots and other parameters were sensitive to the measurement times and other cost factors, the concentric plot type was optimal in almost all studied cases. Subsample tree measurement strategies need further studies, as they were an important cost factor. However, their importance to the precision was not as clear.

Bridging mapping and simulation modelling in the ecosystem service assessments of boreal forests:effects of bioenergy production on carbon dynamics

Background:Increasing the use of forest harvest residues for bioenergy production reduces greenhouse emissions from the use of fossil fuels.However,it may also reduce carbon stocks and habitats for deadwood dependent species.Consequently,simple tools for assessing the trade-offs of alternative management practices on forest dynamics and their services to people are needed.The objectives of this study were to combine mapping and simulation modelling to investigate the effects of forest management on ecosystem services related to carbon cycle in the case of bioenergy production;and to evaluate the suitability of this approach for assessing ecosystem services at the landscape level.Stand level simulations of forest growth and carbon budget were combined with extensive multi-source forest inventory data across a southern boreal landscape in Finland.Stochastic changes in the stand age class distribution over the study region were simulated to mimic variation in management regimes.Results:The mapping framework produced reasonable estimates of the effects of forest management on a set of key ecosystem service indicators:the annual carbon stocks and fluxes of forest biomass and soil,timber and energy-wood production and the coarse woody litter production over a simulation period 2012–2100.Regular harvesting,affecting the stand age class distribution,was a key driver of the carbon stock changes at a landscape level.Extracting forest harvest residues in the final felling caused carbon loss from litter and soil,particularly with combined aboveground residue and stump harvesting.It also reduced the annual coarse woody litter production,demonstrating negative impacts on deadwood abundance and,consequently,forest biodiversity.Conclusions:The refined mapping framework was suitable for assessing ecosystem services at the landscape level.The procedure contributes to bridging the gap between ecosystem service mapping and detailed simulation modelling in boreal forests.It allows for visualizing ecosystem services as fine resolution maps to support sustainable land use planning.In the future,more detailed models and a wider variety of ecosystem service indicators could be added to develop the method.

A Study on Multi-Enriched Housing Environment in Blue Foxes

A traditional fox cage was furnished with both activating environmental enrichments (EE) (a bone, a scratching plate, a hockey buck, a ceiling rope and a wall rope and straw) and EEs enabling resting or observation (a wire-mesh platform and a top nest box). The aim was to find out to which extent blue foxes (Vulpes lagopus) utilized these EEs, and to collect practical experiences of the EEs. The experimental animals were 12 adult blue fox vixens that had been housed in cages furnished with a platform and a bone for about 1.5 years before they were transferred to the multi-enriched cages. The frequency and duration of the active contacts with the EEs were measured with continuous recording on Days 1, 2, 7 and 16 after the transfer, with three hours (13:30 - 14:30, 18:00 - 19:00 and 2:00 - 3:00) on each day. The total use of the EEs was 15 times per hour and more than 20% of the time. For most EEs both the time spent in contact and the frequency of contacts with the EEs declined steeply after Day 1, reflecting a novelty effect of the EEs. This decline was not so evident for the platform, top nest box and wall rope. These three EEs were also the ones used the most by the foxes. The ropes were badly damaged during the experiments, whereas other EEs remained in good condition. Explorativity markedly increased when animals were transferred from home cage to enriched cages. Explorativity remained high during entire study period when foxes were kept in enriched enrichment. Furthermore, it remained high also after transferring of animals back to home cages. Capture reaction was quite similar in home and enriched cages. The amount of stereotypy varied among recording days (P < 0.05). When foxes were transferred from home cages to multi-enriched cages, no change was found in the amount stereotypy during Days 1 and 2. Thereafter, the amount of stereotypy showed a declined trend. Stereotypy tended to increase when foxes were transferred back to home cages. Our results indicated that foxes used readily the opportunities for more diverse behaviours.

Foreleg Bending in Blue Foxes (<i>Vulpes lagopus</i>) as Evaluated by Radiography

The aim was to compare radiographic X-ray data to foreleg bending, moving difficulties and body size in juvenile blue foxes. Experimental groups were: 1) restricted feeding, Ca:P ratio 1.5:1 (R 1);2) restricted feeding, Ca:P ratio 2.9:1 (R 2);3) restricted feeding Ca:P ratio 2.0:1 control level (R 3);4) ad libitum feeding, Ca:P ratio 1.5:1 (AL 1);5) ad libitum feeding, Ca:P ratio 2.9:1 (AL 2);6) ad libitum feeding Ca:P ratio 2.0:1 control level (AL 3). Moving difficulties and foreleg bending were evaluated in live animals. At pelting, left foreleg was removed. X-ray pictures were taken from lateral views. Dimensions of ulna and radius were measured from the X-ray pictures. Conditions of carpal joint and elbow joint were visually evaluated. The results showed that final body weight was affected by feeding intensity (P = 0.001). Ad libitum fed animals had more moving difficulties compared to restricted ones (P = 0.001). The Ca:P ratio tended (P = 0.06) to have an effect on feet bending. Bending was greatest in low Ca:P ratio (1.5:1) and, correspondingly, least in high Ca:P ratio (2.9:1). Moving difficulties were most common in heaviest animals. The moving difficulties tended (P = 0.07) to be positively related to feet bending. Maximum width of ulna was lowest in low Ca:P ratio diet (1.5:1). Bending was negatively correlated with maximum width of ulna. It can be concluded that low Ca:P ratio in the diet (1.5:1) increases foreleg bending in juveniles. Moving difficulties are related to foreleg bending and high body weight.

Effect of Carotenoid Supplement on Production Performance in Mink (<i>Neovison vison</i>)

The present study sought to find out how carotenoid supplement influences on body weights, feed consumption and reproductive success in standard farm mink (Neovison vison). Carotenoids were from microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis. A dose of carotenoid supplement of 0.20, 0.25, 0.20, 0.20, and 0.10 g/animal was added daily in feed in February, March, April, May and June, respectively. Experimental groups were: 1) control group, and 2) carotenoid group. Each group comprised 100 females and 25 males. The results showed that appetite of animals in all groups was good. Significant differences were not found in body weights before breeding. However, weights of control females were significantly (P < 0.05) lower compared with those of carotenoid fed animals when kits aged 21 days. At the age of 21 and 42 days, body weights of kits were similar in both groups. However, kits from carotenoid group tended to grow better (P < 0.1) than those from control group. Number of whelped females was lower in control group (81 vs 85 females). Number of barren females was higher in control than in carotenoid group (16 vs 13 females). Significant differences were not found in number of kits per mated and whelped female. Number of lost kits was higher in the control group at the age of 21 days (24 vs 20 kits) and the age of 42 days (40 vs 26 kits). The present study showed that carotenoid supplement could be used in mink diet. The results are promising, but require further studies before final implementation.

No Solar Signal in Temperature Proxies from Antarctica

We analyzed a number of Antarctic climatic proxies including: 1) an annual proxy covering the time interval 1800-2003, 2) four low-resolution (tens to hundreds of years) ice core records covering the last 242,000 years. The main goal of the work was to search for traces of solar influence on Antarctic climate. Both Fourier and wavelet approaches were used in the statistical analyses. We found no evident fingerprints of solar cycles of Schwabe (ca 11 years), Hale (ca 22 years), Gleissberg (century-scale) or Hallstatt (ca 2000 years). Instead a strong variation with period ca 9800 - 11,600 years is present in the long temperature proxies during the last 242,000 years. It was shown that this variation likely was the result of varying CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, although some solar influence cannot be fully excluded. No features of a quasi 10,000 year variation were found in the Greenland δ18O record. The results show that solar-climatic relationship in Antarctica is weaker than in the high-latitude areas of the Northern Hemisphere.

Checking of Radially Sawn Scots Pine and Norway Spruce Wood

In exterior use, wood is subjected to weathering that causes checking and other deterioration in the appearance and technical properties. We studied quantitatively the surface checking of radially and tangentially sawn specimens of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) wood in a cyclic climate chamber test. The results strongly suggested that the sawing direction determines the checking performance of both Scots pine and Norway spruce wood. The radial surface of Scots pine specimens had 62% less checks than the tangential one, and the cumulative area of checks was 74% smaller. For Norway spruce, the respective figures were: 83% less in the check number and 91% less in the check area. Different from pine, in spruce specimens the checks of radial surface were significantly smaller. Thus, spruce timber gained clearly more about radial sawing pattern. The effect of annual ring width was similar for pine and spruce: the reduction in annual growth worsened the checking. The increase in density worsened the checking of spruce but did not change the performance of pine. In pine wood, the increase of heartwood proportion reduced the fluctuation of moisture content and the formation of checks.

Low-level retention forestry, certification, and biodiversity: case Finland

In managed forests,leaving retention trees during final harvesting has globally become a common approach to reconciling the often conflicting goals of timber production and safeguarding biodiversity and delivery of several ecosystem services.In Finland,the dominant certification scheme requires leaving low levels of retention that can benefit some specific species.However,species responses are dependent on the level of retention and the current low amounts of retention clearly do not provide the habitat quality and continuity needed for declining and redlisted forest species which are dependent on old living trees and coarse woody debris.Several factors contribute to this situation.First,the ecological benefits of the current low retention levels are further diminished by monotonous standwise use of retention,resulting in low variability of retention habitat at the landscape scale.Second,the prevailing timber-oriented management thinking may regard retention trees as an external cost to be minimized,rather than as part of an integrated approach to managing the ecosystem for specific goals.Third,the main obstacles of development may still be institutional and policy-related.The development of retention practices in Finland indicates that the aim has not been to use ecological understanding to attain specific ecological sustainability goals,but rather to define the lowest level of retention that still allows access to the market.We conclude that prevailing retention practices in Finland currently lack ecological credibility in safeguarding biodiversity and they should urgently be developed based on current scientific knowledge to meet ecological sustainability goals.

The challenge of combining variable retention and prescribed burning in Finland

Historically,wildfires have played an important role in forest dynamics in Fennoscandia.In Finland,the annually burned area has diminished in recent decades.This has led to a decline of fire-adapted habitat types and species,many of which have become red-listed.In Fennoscandia,there is a long tradition of silvicultural burnings to enhance tree regeneration.Recently,prescribed burnings have been modified for biodiversity goals following the recommendations that have emerged from ecological research.Prominent biodiversity gains can be obtained by combining sufficient retention levels with burnings.Consequently,burning and retention have been recommended by recent national red-list assessments,strategies,and forest-management guidelines,and they have been adopted in forest-certification standards in Finland.Contrary to these recommendations,the opposite development has taken place:(1)the ecological efficiency of the criterion concerning prescribed burning in the PEFC forestcertification standard has been impaired,(2)state funding to encourage private forest owners to apply prescribed burning was reduced significantly,and(3)prescribed burnings have been abandoned altogether in commercial state-owned forests.Traditional burnings with variable retention have also been partially replaced with burning of small retention-tree groups.This new method is less risky and cheaper,but its ecological benefits are questionable because small-sized fires produce much smaller areas of burned forest soil with less fire-affected wood than traditional silvicultural burnings.Generally,the widely accepted goal to increase burnings with retention appears difficult to achieve and would require stronger political will and economic support from the government.We identified several actions that could improve the weakened situation of fire-dependent biodiversity and recommend the following:(1)setting a clear goal and ensuring sufficient funding for the burnings—including restoration burnings in conservation areas—and targeting these to specific fire-continuum areas with sufficient retention to ensure the continuity of fire-affected habitats at landscape level;(2)renewing the current subsidizing policies to encourage private landowners to perform prescribed burnings in regeneration areas after final fellings,and to safeguard accidental forest-fire areas as set-asides;(3)renewing the current prescribed-burning criterion of the Finnish PEFC forest-certification standard with more ambitious ecological goals;and(4)re-introducing prescribed burnings in commercial state forests where management targets are under political steering.

Novel uses of ensiled biomasses as feedstocks for green biorefineries

Perennial forage plants are efficient utilizers of solar radiation and nutrients so that there is a lot of scope to increase the production of green biomass in many areas.Currently,grasses are mainly used as feeds for ruminants and equines,but there could be higher added value use for several components of the green biomass.Interest in green biorefin-ing has risen recently motivated by the increased sustainability pressures and need to break the reliance on fossil fuels.Novel products derived from grass,such as paper and packaging,nanofibers,animal bedding,novel protein feeds,extracted proteins,biochemicals,nutraceuticals,bioactive compounds,biogas and biochar could create new sustainable business opportunities in rural areas.Most green biorefinery concepts focus on using fresh green biomass as the feedstock,but preservation of it by ensiling would provide several benefits such as all-year-around avail-ability of the feedstock and increased stability of the press juice and press cake.The major difference between fresh and ensiled grass is the conversion of water soluble carbohydrates into fermentation end products,mainly lactic and acetic acids,that lower the pH of the silage so that it becomes stable in anaerobic conditions.This has some important consequences on the processability and quality of products,which are partly positive and partly negative,e.g.,degradation of protein into peptides,amino acids and ammonia.These aspects are discussed in this review.

Experimental evidence on biodiversity impacts of variable retention forestry,prescribed burning,and deadwood manipulation in Fennoscandia

Intensive forest management has been applied in most Fennoscandian forests for a period of almost one felling rotation.This paradigm has produced even-aged and even-structured forests of different successional stages that cover about 90%of forest land.At the same time,wildfires have been nearly eliminated in most of the Fennoscandian nature.Consequently,hundreds of species are red-listed because of forest management.To support these species,forest management requires improvements.Variable retention forestry and habitat restoration have been suggested to mitigate negative effects of forest management on biodiversity,and these have been practiced to some extent during the past few decades.Here,we review experimental results on the effects of variable retention and two restoration measures(prescribed burning and artificial addition of coarse woody debris)on different species groups in Fennoscandia.Our key findings are as follows:(i)Many species respond positively to felling within a few years,apparently due to released and often ephemeral resources,such as fresh residue and stumps.Species associated with shady conditions are negatively impacted,but any retention supports many of these,and their species composition remains almost unaffected with 50-70%retention of the initial tree volume.(ii)These effects remain detectable for at least 10-30 years or,according to some studies,nearly 100 years,e.g.,in polypore fungi.(iii)Initial effects of prescribed burning on most species groups(apart from pyrophiles)are negative,but within 10-15 years post-fire sites begin to support many rare and threatened deadwood-dependent species.Epiphytic lichens,however,remain negatively affected.(iv)Artificial addition of deadwood(mostly high stumps)supports a wide spectrum of deadwood-dependent species,but the species composition differs from that of naturally died trees.(v)Moisture and micro-habitat variation are crucial for forest species at harvested sites,at least in forests dominated by Norway spruce.We conclude that felling method as such is of little importance for threatened forest species,although retention mitigates many negative effects.These species require microclimatic continuity,and maintenance and active increase of legacies,such as deadwood of different qualities(species,downed/standing,snag/log/stump,decay stage),very old trees,and tree species mixtures.

Key factors determining biochar sorption capacity for metal contaminants:a literature synthesis

The sorption capacity and affinity of biochar for metals are both important attributes that determine biochar’s suitability as a soil amendment for contaminant mitigation,yet few analyses have considered both characteristics simultaneously.We present a systematic review of literature published between 2010 and 2018 to test the hypothesis that sorption capacity and affinity are affected by biochar properties,attributes of the metal contaminant,and experimental conditions,in that order.We used random forest(RF)and multi-objective optimization to analyze data of 559 individual Langmuir adsorption isotherms extracted from 133 studies covering the sorption capacity(C_(max))and affinity(K_(L))of biochar for 17 different metals,elabo-rated from six different feedstock classes,three different types of feedstock pretreatment,and five types of post-pyrolysis treatment.Highest sorption values were obtained for Pb(II),Cr(IV),and Cd(II).The feedstock used was the key determinant influencing biochar’s capacity and affinity to sorb metal contaminants(first and fourth most important variable in RF mod-els for C_(max) and K_(L),respectively)with best results obtained for biochar elaborated from nutrient-dense feedstocks(animal biowaste,sludge,and manure).Biochars that had both high sorption capacity and affinity were the result of a longer dura-tion of pyrolysis;they had lower C and higher N and O content,as well as lower C/N and higher O/C and H/C ratios,higher pore volumes and higher pH.Applying some form of pretreatment was better than none,whereas chemical modification was the best of the post-treatment methods analyzed.This review demonstrates clearly that multiple parameters during the preparation process influence the effectiveness of biochar to immobilize metal contaminants.Future research that focuses on mechanisms and the underlying factors for the correlations observed should allow the development of biochar formulations that are even more effective at immobilizing metal contaminants in soils and sediments.