Arctic Sea Ice Variations in the First Half of the 20th Century:A New Reconstruction Based on Hydrometeorological Data

The shrinking Arctic sea-ice area(SIA) in recent decades is a striking manifestation of the ongoing climate change.Variations of the Arctic sea ice have been continuously observed by satellites since 1979, relatively well monitored since the 1950s, but are highly uncertain in the earlier period due to a lack of observations. Several reconstructions of the historical gridded sea-ice concentration(SIC) data were recently presented based on synthesized regional sea-ice observations or by applying a hybrid model–empirical approach. Here, we present an SIC reconstruction for the period1901–2019 based on established co-variability between SIC and surface air temperature, sea surface temperature, and sea level pressure patterns. The reconstructed sea-ice data for March and September are compared to the frequently used Had ISST1.1 and SIBT1850 datasets. Our reconstruction shows a large decrease in SIA from the 1920 to 1940 concurrent with the Early 20th Century Warming event in the Arctic. Such a negative SIA anomaly is absent in Had ISST1.1 data. The amplitude of the SIA anomaly reaches about 0.8 mln km^(2) in March and 1.5 mln km^(2) in September. The anomaly is about three times stronger than that in the SIBT1850 dataset. The larger decrease in SIA in September is largely due to the stronger SIC reduction in the western sector of the Arctic Ocean in the 70°–80°N latitudinal zone. Our reconstruction provides gridded monthly data that can be used as boundary conditions for atmospheric reanalyses and model experiments to study the Arctic climate for the first half of the 20th century.

Life Origin in the Milky Way Galaxy: I. The Stellar Nucleogenesis of Elements Necessary for the Life Origin

Chemical elements in space can be synthesized by stellar nuclear reactors. Studying the dynamics of processes occurring in the stars introduces a concept of the ensemble-averaged stellar reactor. For future interstellar missions, the terrestrial and solar abundances were compared with considerable number of stars allocated in the ~200 pc solar neighborhood. According to the value of the effective temperature, four stellar classes are distinguished, for which the correlation coefficients and standard deviation are calculated. The statement about the possibility of transferring heavy elements synthesized by stars over long distances in space has been completely refuted. There is no immutability of the distribution of elements on neighboring stars and in the Solar System. It is shown that chemical elements are mainly synthesized inside each stellar reactor. The theory of the buoyancy of elements is generalized to stars. It has been suggested that stars overheat due to a shift in the parameters of nuclear processes occurring inside stars, which leads to the synthesis of heavy elements.

The Effect of a Monatomic Layer on a Surface on the Transition Radiation

The transition radiation of a charged particle crossing the interface of two media having a monatomic impurity layer is investigated. It is shown that at sliding angles of incidence of a particle on the boundary of the media, the transition radiation is mainly determined by the properties of the surface layer. The possibility of using transition radiation to study the surface of substances is discussed. In addition, due to the hard radiation present in space, this research may be important for the use of light monoatomic layers as a material for satellite antennas, “solar sails” and cover layers in a future space (interstellar) mission.

Life Origin in the Milky Way Galaxy: III. Spatial Distribution of Overheated Stars in the Solar Neighborhood

A concept of ensemble averaged stellar reactors is developed to study the dynamics of processes occurring in stars, allocated in the ~200 pc solar neighborhood. According to the effective temperature value, four stellar classes are identified, for which the correlation coefficients and standard deviation are counted. The theory of the buoyancy terrestial elements is generalized to stellar systems. It was suggested that stars are over-heated due to the shift parameters of the nuclear processes occurring inside the stars, which leads to the synthesis of transuranium elements until the achievement of a critical nuclear mass and star explosion. The heavy transuranium elements sink downward and are concentrated in the stellar depth layers. The physical explanation of the existence of the critical Chandrasekhar star limit has been offered. Based on the spatial analysis of overheated stars, it was suggested that the withdrawal of the stellar reactor from the equilibrium state is a consequence of extragalactic compression inside the galaxy arm due to the arm spirality (not to be confused with the spirality of the galaxy itself).

Life Origin in the Milky Way Galaxy: II. Scanning for Habitable Stellar Systems on Behalf of Future Space Missions

The possibility of the life origin in the stellar systems, located at a distance of ~200 pc from the solar system, was investigated. The stars, in the spectrums of which C (carbon), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), and P (phosphorus) are found, are called DNA-stars. Based on stellar abundances a new method for searching for habitable exoplanets has been developed and a list of 48 DNA-stars in the solar neighborhood, on which life is possible, has been defined. The quota of DNA-stars is equal 1.3% of the total amount of Hypatia Stellar Catalog. Only three DNA-stars out of selected 48 stars belong to the spectral class as our Sun (G2V). The closest to the solar system is the DNA-star with the number HIP 15510, which belongs to the G8V class and is 6 pc away from the solar system. Nine DNA-stars, which have the highest chemical similarity with solar spectrum, were identified. It is identified that one of these nine stars, HIP 24681, has six planets.

Atmospheric and Coupled Model Intercomparison in Terms of Amplitude—Phase Characteristics of Surface Air Temperature Annual Cycle

A model intercomparison in terms of surface air temperature annual cycle amplitude-phase characteristics (SAT AC APC) is performed. The models included in the intercomparison belong to two groups: five atmospheric models with prescribed sea surface temperature and sea ice cover and four coupled models forced by the atmospheric abundances of anthropogenic constituents (in total six coupled model simulations). Over land, the models, simulating higher than observed time averaged SAT, also tend to simulate smaller than observed amplitude of its annual and semiannual harmonics and (outside the Tropics) later-than-observed spring and autumn moments. The models with larger (smaller) time averaged amplitudes of annual and semiannual harmonics also tend to simulate larger (smaller) interannual standard deviations. Over the oceans, the coupled models with larger interannual standard deviations of annual mean SAT tend to simulate larger interannual standard deviations of both annual and semiannual SAT harmonics amplitudes. Most model errors are located in the belts 60°–70°N and 60°–70°S and over Antarctica. These errors are larger for those coupled models which do not employ dynamical modules for sea ice. No systematic differences are found in the simulated time averaged fields of the surface air temperature annual cycle characteristics for atmospheric models on one hand and for the coupled models on the other. But the coupled models generally simulate interannual variability of SAT AC APC better than the atmospheric models (which tend to underestimate it). For the coupled models, the results are not very sensitive to the choice of the particular scenario of anthropogenic forcing. There is a strong linear positive relationship between the model simulated time averaged semiannual SAT harmonics amplitude and interannual standard deviation of annual mean SAT. It is stronger over the tropical oceans and is weaker in the extratropics. In the tropical oceanic areas, it is stronger for the coupled than for the atmospheric models.

Theory of the Origin of Terrestrial and Lunar Ores

In this study, the theory of ore formation on the Earth and the Moon was developed. It is shown that ore deposits on the Earth and the Moon were mainly formed simultaneously with the separation of the Moon from the protoplanet and the formation of the oldest continents. The formation of terrestrial ores occurred as a result of the release of intermediate and heavy chemical elements from the deep layers of the protoplanet and the subsequent process of adhesion to old terrestrial geological faults. The time of terrestrial and lunar ores formations corresponds to the boundary between the Tonian and Cryogenian Periods (~720 Ma). Lunar ore formation processes are different on the near and far sides. The farside of the Moon is a single piece of the protoplanetary lithosphere, so ores there could be formed mainly due to the overflow of igneous rocks over the edge of the lunar continent. On the nearside, due to the rapid cooling, ores were formed in the area of navel-string during the drip-liquid separation of the Moon from the Earth. Due to the fact that the Moon separated at the first stage, the amount of water and methane on it is limited. In periods after the Cryogenian, volcanic, lava and sedimentary rocks on Earth could be enriched with intermediate elements due to the disruption of vertical stratification during galactic storms. To analyze this, a comparison of terrestrial volcanic and lunar pseudo-volcanic activity was carried out in the work.

Recent Ventures in Interdisciplinary Arctic Research:The ARCPATH Project

This paper celebrates Professor Yongqi GAO's significant achievement in the field of interdisciplinary studies within the context of his final research project Arctic Climate Predictions: Pathways to Resilient Sustainable Societies-ARCPATH(https://www.svs.is/en/projects/finished-projects/arcpath). The disciplines represented in the project are related to climatology, anthropology, marine biology, economics, and the broad spectrum of social-ecological studies. Team members were drawn from the Nordic countries, Russia, China, the United States, and Canada. The project was transdisciplinary as well as interdisciplinary as it included collaboration with local knowledge holders. ARCPATH made significant contributions to Arctic research through an improved understanding of the mechanisms that drive climate variability in the Arctic. In tandem with this research, a combination of historical investigations and social, economic, and marine biological fieldwork was carried out for the project study areas of Iceland, Greenland, Norway, and the surrounding seas, with a focus on the joint use of ocean and sea-ice data as well as social-ecological drivers. ARCPATH was able to provide an improved framework for predicting the near-term variation of Arctic climate on spatial scales relevant to society, as well as evaluating possible related changes in socioeconomic realms. In summary, through the integration of information from several different disciplines and research approaches, ARCPATH served to create new and valuable knowledge on crucial issues, thus providing new pathways to action for Arctic communities.

Uncertainty of Climate Response to Natural and Anthropogenic Forcings Due to Different Land Use Scenarios

The A.M.Obukhov Institute of Atmospheric Physics,Russian Academy of Sciences （IAP RAS） climate model （CM） of intermediate complexity is extended by a spatially explicit terrestrial carbon cycle module.Numerical experiments with the IAP RAS CM are performed forced by the reconstructions of anthropogenic and natural forcings for the 16th to the 20th centuries and by combined SRES （Special Report on Emission Scenarios） A2-LUH （Land Use Harmonization） anthropogenic scenarios for the 21st century.Hereby,the impact of uncertainty in land-use scenarios on results of simulations with a coupled climate-carbon cycle model is tested.The simulations of the model realistically reproduced historical changes in carbon cycle characteristics.In the IAP RAS CM,climate warming reproduced in the 20th and 21st centuries enhanced terrestrial net primary production but terrestrial carbon uptake was suppressed due to an overcompensating increase in soil respiration.Around year 2100,the simulations the model forced by different land use scenarios diverged markedly,by about 70 Pg （C） in terms of biomass and soil carbon stock but they differed only by about 10 ppmv in terms of atmospheric carbon dioxide content.

A New View of the Mass Extinctions and the Worldwide Floods

In this study, the reasons for mass extinction in Jurassic were investigated. It was shown that galactic compression led to the activation of terrestrial nuclear reactors, which in turn led to the changes in tectonic activity, volcano eruptions, LIPs, MORBs, paleoclimate change, drift of continents, narrowing of the Earth, worldwide floods, tsunami, changes in mantle and core structures, in magnetic fields and in sedimentary isotopes. It was shown that the mass extinctions occurred during worldwide floods, caused by the narrowing of the Earth at the time of galactic gravitational compression. It was shown that the average statistical altitude distribution of dinosaurs has a bimodal distribution and corresponds to permanent migrations between the plains and the hills. It has been suggested that the skeletons of dinosaurs are well preserved as a result of covering the bodies of dinosaurs with mud flows of coastal sediments and the soil layers at worldwide tsunami. It was formulated the requirement to paleontology, consisting in the obligatory registration of altitudes of the actual place of the fossils found. The simple explanation of the presence of boundaries in the structure of the Earth is given: the 40K nuclear layer corresponds to the boundary between upper and lower mantle;the 137Cs layer located on the boundary between the lower mantle and the outer core;the Th-U nuclear layer is a border between outer and inner core. The previously abstract theories of subduction and continents drift have a clear and obvious physical sense. It was shown that the standard geological table is a registration book of galactic events during Paleozoic. It is proposed to restore the structure of the galactic arms by the geological deposits on the Earth. It was suggested to create the stations on elevated hills for rescue and regeneration of biological forms in the future.

The Basic Principles of Creation of Habitable Planets around Stars in the Milky Way Galaxy

The principle of habitable planets creation of near stars in our galaxy was developed. It was shown that the Earth and the Moon formed as a result of thermal nuclear explosion (TNE) after a collision with a small comet. The comet has broken through the proto-Earth crust, and created conditions for liquid-drop division into the Earth and the Moon. It is shown that the comet impact on the proto-Earth led to formation of continents as well as to formation of the Moon, seas, oceans and atmosphere and to creation of conditions for life origin. The analysis of kimberlitic pipes distribution, as markers of comet fragments motion under a crust, shows that the comet has broken up under crust with formation of many gas bubbles. An analysis of the Martian topography revealed that the comet hit Mars not under a glancing angle. As a result, the products of TNE remained under the Marian crust. The track of the comet movement under the Venus crust was also established. It is shown that the planet surface near comet track is spotted by numerous cracks.

New Theory of Effusive and Explosive Volcanic Eruptions

In this study, we presented new theory of effusive and explosive of volcanic eruptions. New explanation of eruption mechanisms was done by using the Elemental Buoyancy Theory and new K-Th-U structure of Earth, developed early by author. During investigation of effusive eruptions, it was given clear answer on the question why the light chemical elements, mainly silicon and sulfur compound, currently dominate in the volcanic ashes, gases, and in the magma lavas. At investigation of explosive mechanism, we analyzed 38 strong eruptions with Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) more than 4+. It was shown that there is a link between the planet configurations and volcanic eruptions. It can be found that volcano eruptions occurred at the different types of planet alignments. The phenomenon does depend neither on planet mass nor on the relative positions of planets. Also the phenomenon does not depend on the distance between planets, but often eruptions were observed when the distances between planets are multiple units. Also in work, it was demonstrated that the planet alignment affects not only natural processes on the Earth, but also impact the Sun activity. Based on the comparison phenomenon on the Earth and Sun, we get new mechanism to rapidly rising up pressure under the lithospheric planes by gravity vortexes. This gravity vortex was called as terrestrial magmatic protuberances.

Polarimetric Study of the Fine Aerosol Fraction in Beijing

Measurements of aerosol optical characteris- tics were carried out with a Photoelectric Aerosol Nephelometer （PhAN） in Beijing and at Xinglong Obser- vatory, which is located 150 km northeast of Beijing. Aerosol size distributions were retrieved by means of the inverse problem solution. Mean volume size distributions of the fine aerosol fraction were unimodal with the maximum radius in the range 0.11-0.15 pm. Accumula- tion of aerosol matter in the air basin of Beijing takes place mainly due to the growth of particle size, but not their number. A simple optical method to detect aerosol nonsphericity is proposed.

Astronomical Triggers as a Cause of Strong Earthquakes

The planetary geometries were studied at the moments of 92 strong earthquakes with a magnitude of more than 8 on the Richter scale (R8+) for the period from 1900 to 2011. Three main planetary schemes were specified, namely the schemes of the generalized Archimedes lever (gAL) and the Kepler conjunction (gKc), as well as a new geometry of the triangles of the remote signal catcher (cRS). It was discovered 22 gAL, 42 gKc and 28 cRS geometries, which are 23.9%, 45.7%, and 30.4%, respectively, from the total 92 studying cases. It was found that in some earthquakes;the planetary geometries are absolutely identical, which indicates the universality of the mechanism that caused the earthquake. The triggered effect does not depend on the distance between the planets and the mass of the planets, so the mechanism is identified as an inertial gravitational interaction. The triggered effect increases with the multiplicity of the ratio of distances between planets, as well as with pairwise planetary parallelism, which probably indicates about the wave nature of inertial effects. The triggering effect increases with increasing multiplicity of the ratio of distances between planets, as well as with pairwise planetary parallelism, which probably indicates about the wave nature of inertial effects. According to the Archimedes’ lever principle, the Third Law of Motion is changed by adding a few words. It is assumed that inertia is a special case of gravity, namely gravitational self-induction, which really depends, like any self-induction, only on the geometry of the task.

Long-Term Trends of Carbon Monoxide Total Columnar Amount in Urban Areas and Background Regions:Ground-and Satellite-based Spectroscopic Measurements

A comparative study was carried out to explore carbon monoxide total columnar amount（CO TC） in background and polluted atmosphere, including the stations of ZSS（Zvenigorod）, ZOTTO（Central Siberia）, Peterhof, Beijing, and Moscow,during 1998–2014, on the basis of ground-and satellite-based spectroscopic measurements. Interannual variations of CO TC in different regions of Eurasia were obtained from ground-based spectroscopic observations, combined with satellite data from the sensors MOPITT（2001–14）, AIRS（2003–14）, and IASI Met Op-A（2010–13）. A decreasing trend in CO TC（1998–2014） was found at the urban site of Beijing, where CO TC decreased by 1.14% ± 0.87% yr^（-1）. Meanwhile, at the Moscow site, CO TC decreased remarkably by 3.73% ± 0.39% yr^（-1）. In the background regions（ZSS, ZOTTO, Peterhof）, the reduction was 0.9%–1.7% yr^（-1） during the same period. Based on the AIRSv6 satellite data for the period 2003–14, a slight decrease（0.4%–0.6% yr^（-1）） of CO TC was detected over the midlatitudes of Eurasia, while a reduction of 0.9%–1.2% yr^（-1） was found in Southeast Asia. The degree of correlation between the CO TC derived from satellite products（MOPITTv6 Joint, AIRSv6 and IASI Met Op-A） and ground-based measurements was calculated, revealing significant correlation in unpolluted regions.While in polluted areas, IASI Met Op-A and AIRSv6 data underestimated CO TC by a factor of 1.5–2.8. On average, the correlation coefficient between ground-and satellite-based data increased significantly for cases with PBL heights greater than 500 m.

Kepler’s Conjunction for Two Strong Earthquakes in Türkiye in February 2023

This work is devoted to the study of the relationship between strong earthquakes and planetary configurations using the example of two consecutive strong earthquakes that occurred in Türkiye (Turkey), on February 6, 2023. It is shown that at the time of the earthquakes, linear alignment of the planets along the Jupiter-Venus-Sun line was observed, that is, the astronomical trigger belonged to the generalized Kepler conjunction scheme (gKc), when the Earth does not participate in the linearization scheme. It is shown that for the first earthquake that occurred at 01:17 UTC, the ratio of the distances between Jupiter-Earth and Jupiter-Mars was close to an integer value equal to 5.993. For the second earthquake that occurred on the same day at 10:25 UTC, no integer resonance ratios were detected, however, it was found that the terrestrial e UTC line at the time of the earthquake passed through the position of Mercury. Recall that the 12-hour line of the eUTC chart is always oriented towards the Sun. The conclusions of the work once again confirm the correctness of the theories of Archimedes and Kepler and convince us of the existence of a gravitational phenomenon that does not depend on the distances and masses of planets, has a pronounced inertial and wave character and does not fit into the general theory of relativity, developed in the last century by Albert Einstein.

Tropical Cyclones and Polar Lows: Velocity, Size, and Energy Scales, and Relation to the 26℃ Cyclone Origin Criteria

The goal of this paper is to quantitatively formulate some necessary conditions for the development of intense atmospheric vortices. Specifically, these criteria are discussed for tropical cyclones （TC） and polar lows （PL） by using bulk formulas for fluxes of momentum, sensible heating, and latent heating between the ocean and the atmosphere. The velocity scale is used in two forms： （1） as expressed through the buoyancy flux b and the Coriolis parameter Ic for rotating fluids convection, and （2） as expressed with the cube of velocity times the drag coefficient through the formula for total kinetic energy dissipation in the atmospheric boundary layer. In the quasistationary case the dissipation equals the generation of the energy. In both cases the velocity scale can be expressed through temperature and humidity differences between the ocean and the atmosphere in terms of the reduced gravity, and both forms produce quite comparable velocity scales. Using parameters b and Ic, we can form scales of the area and, by adding the mass of a unit air column, a scale of the total kinetic energy as well. These scales nicely explain the much smaller size of a PL, as compared to a TC, and the total kinetic energy of a TC is of the order 1018 - 1019 J. It will be shown that wind of 33 m s^-1 is produced when the total enthalpy fluxes between the ocean and the atmosphere are about 700 W m-2 for a TC and 1700 W m-2 for a PL, in association with the much larger role of the latent heat in the first case and the stricter geostrophic constraints and larger static stability in the second case. This replaces the mystical role of 26℃ as a criterion for TC origin. The buoyancy flux, a product of the reduced gravity and the wind speed, together with the atmospheric static stability, determines the rate of the penetrating convection. It is known from the observations that the formation time for a PL reaching an altitude of 5-6 km can be only a few hours, and a day, or even half a day, for a TC reaching 15-18 km. These two facts allow us to construct curves on the plane of Ts and ΔT = Ts - Ta to determine possibilities for forming an intense vortex. Here, Ta is the atmospheric temperature at the height z = 10 m. A PL should have AT 〉 20℃ in accordance with the observations and nmnerical simulations. The conditions for a TC are not so straightforward but our diagram shows that the temperature difference of a few degrees, or possibly even a fraction of a degree, might be sufficient for TC development for a range of static stabilities and development times.

Toward Sustainable Revegetation in the Loess Plateau Using Coupled Water and Carbon Management

The"Grain-for-Green"project on the Loess Plateau is the largest revegetation program in the world.However,revegetation-induced land use changes can influence both water and carbon cycles,and the diverse consequences were not well understood.Therefore,the reasonability and sustainability of revegetation measures are in question.This study quantifies the impacts of revegetation-induced land use conversions on the water and carbon cycles in a typical watershed on the Loess Plateau and identifies suitable areas where revegetation of forest or grassland could benefit both soil and water conservation and carbon sequestration.We used a coupled hydro-biogeochemical model to simulate the changes of a few key components in terms of water and carbon by designing a variety of hypothetical land use conversion scenarios derived from revegetation policy.Compared to the baseline condition(land use in 2000),both sediment yield and water yield decreased substantially when replacing steep cropland with forest or grassland.Converting cropland with slopes larger than 25°,15°,and 6°to forest(CTF)would enhance the carbon sequestration with a negligible negative effect on soil water content,while replacing cropland with grassland(CTG)would result in a decline in net primary production but with a substantial increase in soil water content(3.8%-14.9%).Compared to the baseline,the soil organic carbon would increase by 0.9%-3.2% in CTF and keep relatively stable in CTG.Through testing a variety of hypothetical revegetation scenarios,we identified potential priority areas for CTF and CTG,where revegetation may be appropriate and potentially beneficial to conserving soil and water and enhancing carbon sequestration.Our study highlights the challenges in future water and carbon coupling management under revegetation policy,and our quantitative results and identification of potential areas for revegetation could provide information to policy makers for seeking optimal management on the Loess Plateau.

Long-Term H2O and CO2 Trends in Conifer Disc Tree Rings and Meteorological Parameters

Results of investigations into the CO2 content in tree disc rings by the method proposed here have shown that a considerable part of CO2 generated under cell respiration is found in tree stems. Besides, annual CO2 distribution in tree rings exhibits a well-defined cyclicity. Results obtained from investigations into long-term CO2 and H2O variations in tree discs performed by different methods are presented. Wavelet and spectral analyses of the relationship between CO2 and H2O variations in a Siberian stone pine disc and meteorological parameters were made. The CO2 annual distributions of seven spruce tree discs were examined by the Caterpiller-SSA method. Wood samples of Siberian stone pine and spruce trees were taken from the same site in Tomsk region （Siberia, Russia） that characterized by an optimum growth habitat. Conclusions are made regarding the response of the annual CO2 and H2O conifer disc tree ring distributions to different climatic factors.

Similarity Criteria, Galactic Scales, and Spectra

An old topic of dimensional analysis in astrophysics is presented and new results, or quantitative explanations of some observational facts are obtained, in particular, on the base of the supernova, SN, explosions. The presentation starts with the derivation of two similarity criteria for astrophysical objects constructed out of four measurable quantities: mass, M, luminosity, Lb, velocity U, size R, and gravitational constant G. The first well known criterium describes the virial principle and the other one seems to be new and is based on the Tully-Fisher observational relationship between luminosity and velocity. The energy generated by SN explosions allows one to estimate well the interstellar turbulent velocities and magnetic field in our Galaxy, resulting in 3 to 4 microgauss. It is found that for z ≥ 0.6 the observed distant galactic clusters are far from virial equilibrium and the degree of disequilibrium is increasing with z. It means that to reach such an equilibrium the cluster age should be of order ten dynamical time scales, see Equation (7). For all considered galaxy clusters the second similarity criterium was found to be constant with a precision of about ten per cent. Therefore it could be considered as a general law, though for different classes of objects the numerical coefficient may vary. Some scales are proposed and two of them are tested for galactic clusters by finding numerical coefficients with accuracies of about 20 percent or better: e.g. observed luminocities of clusters are W=Lb=a1(M/R)5/2G3/2 with for the first eleven objects from the Table for which the virial equilibrium is found with the same accuracy. The square root of the two criteria ratio 3=( 2/ 1)1/2=U(WG)-1/5 explains the Tully-Fisher law and is constant for all 32 available clusters from [1,2] and is equal to 1.8 ± 0.2. This is because 3 has not global values of total mass and size.