Stand Structure, Diversity and Regeneration Status of Woody Species in Open and Exclosed Dry Woodland Sites around <i>Molapo</i>Farming Areas of the Okavango Delta, Northeastern Botswana

Stand structure, diversity and regeneration status of woody species were investigated in open and exclosed dry woodland sites in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, northeastern Botswana. A total of 105, 111 and 130 quadrats, measuring 20 × 20 m each, were laid down along parallel line transects in the three sites, respectively, to collect data. A total of 47 species, representing 16 families and 24 genera, were recorded in the study sites. Of these, 33 species representing 13 families and 20 genera, 41 species representing 15 families and 23 genera and 27 species representing 10 families and 14 genera were encountered in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, respectively. The most diverse family was Fabaceae followed by Combretaceae and Tiliaceae at all the three sites. The most diverse genus was Acacia, followed by Combretum and Grewia. The diversity of woody species in the study sites were 2.18, 2.15 and 1.5 in Shorobe, Island Safari and Xobe, respectively, while their corresponding evenness values were 0.6, 0.6 and 0.5, respectively. The mean densities of the woody species encountered in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe were 2629, 4271 and 2745 individuals ha&#451, respectively. The five densest species were Colophospermum mopane, Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia tortilis, Philenoptera violacea and Terminalia prunioides in Island Safari, C. mopane, A. tortilis, A. erioloba, P. violacea and D. cinerea in Shorobe and Acacia mellifera, A. tortilis, P. nelsii, A. luederitzii and A. erubescens in Xobe. The highest important value index values were exhibited by C. mopane, D. cinerea, A. tortilis, P. violacea and T. prunioides in Island Safari, C. mopane, A. erioloba, A. tortilis, P. violacea and C. imberbe in Shorobe, and A. mellifera, A. tortilis, P. nelsii and A. luederitzii in Xobe. The alarming result was the fact that 71%, 80% and 85% of the woody species recorded in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, respectively, exhibited hampered regeneration and, thus, unhealthy population structures. Therefore, there is an urgent need to address the observed unhealthy population structures of the woody species through investigation of the major causes of their hampered regeneration, and also designing measures that will facilitate natural and artificial regeneration of these species at the three study sites.

Diversity, Population Structure and Regeneration Status of Woody Species in Dry Woodlands Adjacent to <i>Molapo</i>Farms in Northern Botswana

The diversity, population structure and regeneration status of woody species were studied at Xobe and Shorobe Villages in northern Botswana. A total of 130 and 111 quadrats of 20 × 20 m size were laid down at 50 m intervals along parallel line transects at Xobe and Shorobe, respectively. A total of 46 woody species, 27 from Xobe and 41 from Shorobe were recorded. Of the 46 woody species, only 22 were recorded at both sites. Ten genera and six families were found only in Shorobe while one genus and one family were found only in Xobe. The diversity and evenness of woody species were 1.5 and 0.5 in Xobe, respectively, and 2.18 and 0.6 in Shorobe, respectively. The similarities of woody species in terms of richness of species, genera and families at the two sites were about 50%, 54% and 56%, respectively. The mean densities of woody species were 2745.7 ± 1.35 and 4269.7 ± 36 individuals ha-1 at Xobe and Shorobe, respectively. Despite differences in absolute numbers, the total mean densities of woody species at both sites did not exhibit significant (P = 0.35) differences. At both sites, woody species were dominated by individuals of only a few species, which also exhibited the highest values of important value index. The population structure patterns of the woody species were categorized into five groups. The species in the first group exhibited reverse J-shaped distribution, which indicates stable population structures. The species in the second group showed relatively good recruitment but the regeneration is negatively affected. The species in the other three groups exhibited hampered regeneration as a result of disturbances caused by humans, domestic animals and annual fires. The parameters assessed indicate the need for attention and appropriate management interventions by the relevant national authorities at various levels.

Institutions and water governance in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

The goals of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) can be achieved by embracing the principles of distributive governance, which places both customary and statutory water institutions on the same pedestal in the governance of water resources. As culture and traditions constitute intangible aspects of water resources management in rural Africa, the recognition of water governance systems grounded in local norms, which correspond better with the aspirations of local water users as against the expert-knowledge systems is desirable. Following the introduction of the statutory institutions in postcolonial Africa, customary institutions, which were once effective in regulating water resources became relegated to the background in those countries, including Botswana . Adopting a critical literature review approach, this article employs the concept of legal pluralism to analyze the institutional factors that create the disharmony between cultural and statutory water governance and management institutions. Findings indicate that water has been abstracted from its social nature and transformed into a tradable economic good. Ultimately, the local meanings and images encoded in water as a nature-given resource are overlooked, thus generating conflicts in water governance. The paper recommends the adoptions of legal pluralism under which water institutions need to embrace both customary and statutory institutions.

Paris agreement on climate change and Botswana's Vision 2036:an examination of linkages

Sustainable use of natural resources and sustainable development are concepts that are gaining momentum globally in the advent of global warming and climate change. The threshold for the entry in force of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change was achieved exactly 5 days after the unveiling of Botswana's Vision 2036 document. This development framework envisages sustainable economic development and climate change adaptation. This article uses exploratory research methodology of systematic document analysis to analyze these principles in the context of Botswana. It investigates government's intentions in achieving the third pillar of the national vision. Botswana has declared its intensions to reduce carbon emissions by 15% by 2030 through the intended nationally determined contributions. While the country's ambitions are largely forward-looking and aligned with those of the Paris Agreement, the economic diversification plans of Botswana threaten to potentially contribute significantly to the emission of greenhouse gases. The article applies sustainability and/or sustainable development theory in examining the relationship between the Paris Agreement and Botswana's vision. It concludes that there is link between the two documents, both of which are anchored of the development which is environmentally sustainable. It further concludes that developing nations should make international commitments which are aligned to their developmental plans.

Soil Factors That Influence the Abundance and Distribution of Threatened and Endangered Species in the Okavango Delta;with Particular Emphasis on <i>Eulophia angolensis</i>

Eulophia angolensis is an endangered plant species found in the Okavango Delta. Generally, there is lack of botanical information on this species in Botswana, which is necessary for its in-situ and ex-situ conservation. The objectives of this research are to map areas where E. angolensis occurs, determine the species that co-exist with it, and establish soil factors that influence its abundance and distribution in the Okavango Delta. A survey of the area where the plant was sighted in 2004 was carried out using recorded GPS points. Soil samples were collected at 0 - 20 cm depth from the floodplain where the species occurred to determine the macronutrients: total nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (N, P, and K) and soil organic carbon (SOC) contents. The researchers could not find the plant at all GPS locations where the plant was sighted in 2004, but discovered a new unrecorded site for the species. The species was very close to the water channel;approximately 40 cm away, with only one plant about 60 cm away. The mean macronutrients concentrations in the site that contained E. angolensis were total N = 2.61 ± 0.61 mg/L, P = 7.02 ± 0.8 mg/L and K = 14.41 ± 4.28 mg/L. SOC concentration was 40.1 ± 10.28 mg/L. Furthermore, there was K biogeochemical gradient within the E. angolensis habitat, with more concentrations directly around the plant. Therefore, E. angolensis needs critical amounts of N, P, K and SOC, with K, SOC and water requirement being the crucial factors. Frequent monitoring of the endangered species found in the Okavango Delta is required, and ex-situ conservation of the species in the country in the form of a botanical garden should be established for future generations.

Consumer willingness to pay for plastic bags levy and willingness to accept eco-friendly alternatives in Botswana

Plastic bags, though commonly used for packaging of goods, are highly durable and nonbiodegradable. Plastic bag litter serves as a negative environmental externality detrimental to animal health and natural beauty of the environment. In an effort to curtail the excessive use of plastic bags in Botswana, the government introduced a plastic levy targeted at consumers at retail points. This study uses primary data collected from 367 respondents randomly selected from six geospatially and purposively selected shopping malls to determine the consumers' willingness to pay(WTP) for continued plastic bag usage and their willingness to accept(WTA)to shift to eco-friendly alternatives. The results of the study revealed that open dumping and burning of plastic litter are more common in Maun than in Gaborone. It also showed that there is a significant relationship between the level of education and WTP. Further, there is a significant variation in income and education in respect to environmental awareness. The government should improve its efforts of sensitizing the public about the improper disposal of plastic bags.

Assessment of benefits and risks of growing Jatropha(Jatropha curcas) as a biofuel crop in sub-Saharan Africa: a contribution to agronomic and socio-economic policies

In sub-Saharan Africa（SSA）, the main goals behind the development of a biofuel industry are employment creation and income generation. Jatropha（Jatropha curcas L.） has emerged as a candidate for biodiesel production. It is a non-edible oil producing, drought-resistant plant that can be grown on marginal land with limited water and low soil fertility. However, these are also attributes that typify weedy and invasive plant species. Adding to these concerns are the general questioning of whether biofuel production will reduce Greenhouse gas（GHG）emissions globally. Currently, there is limited information on the potential invasiveness of many biofuel crops, and in particular, the potential risks of cultivating Jatropha. This paper aims to assess the benefits and risks, especially risks,of growing Jatropha for biodiesel production. Jatropha should be screened through a science-based risk-assessment procedure to predict the risk of becoming invasive before it is released for large-scale commercial cultivation.The net GHG savings can be achieved through the cultivation of Jatropha, considering two main factors： no landuse change and crop management without chemical fertilization.

Community participation in cultural heritage and environmental policy formulation in Botswana

Cultural heritage does not have direct economic benefits. However, if properly managed it can stimulate social cohesions, improving the environment and have beneficial economic spin offs for the local communities. This paper discusses the role of communities in the formulation of the policies concerning their local environment. It argues that community engagement by policy makers is important in giving legitimacy and ownership of the policies. Furthermore, this paper discusses the potential of cultural heritage in diversifying the economy in Botswana. This paper recommends for the re-assessment of the relationship between the state and local communities which is critical in resuscitating the seemingly ailing community business organizations. In conclusion, it argues for the sustainable management of cultural heritage as a social and economic resource in the next 50 years of Botswana's independence.

From public to private solid waste management:Stakeholders’perspectives on private-public solid waste management in Lobatse,Botswana

Upon the realization that urban areas can only achieve sustainable solid waste management systems through an interplay of partnerships and stakeholders,developing countries have geared themselves towards the privatization of waste management services in efforts to reduce costs and improve efficiency.Lobatse,a town located in the south of Botswana,faces the increasing challenges of poor waste management due to the lack of finances and resources available to the Lobatse Town Council,which hinders efforts towards a sustainable waste management system.This has negative implications for public health and the environment,as a result of solid waste pollution from littering and the illegal dumping of waste.This work examines the current state of solid waste management and its challenges in Lobatse,within the context of the interplay between public and private solid waste management.The study aims to perform a social exploration of the efficiency of waste management services,considering the political economy and households’perceptions towards these services.Key stakeholders were interviewed and a social survey of 222 households was conducted to generate primary data.The findings indicate that the involvement of the private sector yielded positive outcomes,as it increased the solid waste collection frequency and improved the quality of the waste management service.Most of the stakeholders were in favor of privatization,and the households were satisfied and willing to contribute towards the cost recovery of solid waste management.It is,therefore,recommended to promote and establish a private-public-community partnership in the town to improve the quality of the waste management system.

A qualitative assessment of solid waste management in Peleng township in Lobatse,Botswana considering spatial aspects

Even though solid waste management is widely researched,there is scanty literature addressing the influence of physical environmental attributes on solid waste management service provision in informal settlements.The aim of this study was to investigate the nexus between physical infrastructural planning and waste management service.To obtain relevant results,this study used the case study of Peleng township in Botswana.The study relied on empirical data collected from 91 ran-domly selected households.ArcGIS was used for mapping 550 purposively selected households,and for visualization of the physical infrastructure.This study concluded that the community is at the forefront of dealing with waste problems in their settlement.However,their interventions have fallen short of becoming profitable and sustainable due to a failure of the government to integrate solid waste management into mainstream urban development planning.The findings revealed that there is minimal government intervention for improved solid waste management in the area.It recommends that adequate attention must be given to road infrastructure and physical developments in order solid waste management in Peleng,Lobatse.

A test of two mechanisms proposed to optimize grassland aboveground primary productivity in response to grazing

Aims Mesic grasslands have a long evolutionary history of grazing by large herbivores and as a consequence,grassland species have numerous adaptations allowing them to respond favourably to grazing.Although empirical evidence has been equivocal,theory predicts that such adaptations combined with alterations in resources can lead to grazing-induced overcompensation in aboveground net primary production(ANPP;grazed ANPP>ungrazed ANPP)under certain conditions.We tested two specific predictions from theory.First,overcompensation is more likely to occur in annually burned grasslands because limiting nutrients that would be lost with frequent fires are recycled through grazers and stimulate ANPP.Second,overcompensation of biomass lost to grazers is more likely to occur in unburned sites where grazing has the greatest effect on increasing light availability through alterations in canopy structure.Methods We tested these nutrient versus light-based predictions in grazed grasslands that had been annually burned or protected from fire for>20 years.We assessed responses in ANPP to grazing by large ungulates using both permanent and moveable grazing exclosures(252 exclosures from which biomass was harvested from 3192 quadrats)in a 2-year study.Study sites were located at the Konza Prairie Biological Station(KPBS)in North America and at Kruger National Park(KNP)in South Africa.At KPBS,sites were grazed by North American bison whereas in KNP sites were grazed either by a diverse suite of herbivores(e.g.blue wildebeest,Burchell’s zebra,African buffalo)or by a single large ungulate(African buffalo).Important Findings We found no evidence for overcompensation in either burned or unburned sites,regardless of grazer type.Thus,there was no support for either mechanism leading to overcompensation.Instead,complete compensation of total biomass lost to grazers was the most common response characterizing grazing–ANPP relationships with,in some cases,undercompensation of grass ANPP being offset by increased ANPP of forbs likely due to competitive release.The capability of these very different grass-dominated systems to maintain ANPP while being grazed has important implications for energy flow,ecosystem function and the trophic dynamics of grasslands.

Socio-economic factors influencing household forest dependency in Chobe enclave, Botswana

Introduction:Human dependence on forests is a multifaceted phenomenon.The degree of reliance on forests varies geographically,overtime and across communities.These dynamics underpin the importance of understanding the determinants of household reliance on forests for the long-term sustainable forest management and conservation.This paper presents an analysis of socio-economic determinants on the level of household forest dependency in Chobe enclave,Botswana.The study hypothesised that the level of household forest dependency will significantly differ across a range of socio-economic factors.Methods:Data was collected through a structured questionnaire survey of 183 households,randomly selected from three communities bordering Chobe Forest Reserve.Binary logistic regression model was used for analysing data.Results:Results showed that age and education significantly influenced household reliance on forests,while other socio-economic factors were not significant.Forest dependency was observed to be decreasing with an increase on both respondent age and educational level.Therefore,the youth were likely to be more reliant on forest products compared to their elderly counterpart while higher educational attainment lessened reliance on forest products.Conclusion:In order to foster a balance between forest dependency and biodiversity conservation,alternative opportunities and provision and access to higher education aimed at diversifying young people’s livelihood activities are vital in reducing forest dependency,hence protecting forests for posterity.