Biochemical and physical investigations on detoxification of ginkgo kernel juice using probiotic fermentation with macroporous resin addition

The toxicity of ginkgo kernel is a global concern,restricting its consumption as a medicinal food.This study focuses on eliminating the toxic components,specifically ginkgolic acid,from ginkgo kernel juice.The approach used was probiotic fermentation with autochthonous lactic acid bacteria combined with macroporous resin.Compared to using lactic acid fermentation alone,adding macroporous resin during probiotic fermentation significantly enhanced the removal of toxic ginkgolic acid and 4'-O-methylpyridoxine from ginkgo kernel juice.After 48 h of fermentation with macroporous resin,the contents of ginkgolic acid and 4'-O-methylpyridoxine decreased by more than 69%and 61%,respectively.Interestingly,the adsorption of microbial growth inhibitors,such as ginkgolic acid,4'-O-methylpyridoxine,and phenolics,by the resin did not hinder the growth of lactic acid bacteria or their metabolic activities involving organic acids and monosaccharides.The study further confirmed that microbial adsorption was the primary reason for removing ginkgolic acid during probiotic fermentation.Also,the adsorption mechanism of ginkgolic acid during probiotic fermentation with macroporous resin was explored.From a mass transfer perspective,incorporating macroporous resin during the probiotic fermentation of ginkgo kernel juice reduced the mass transfer resistance for surface diffusion.Consequently,this lowered the contribution of surface diffusion to the overall diffusion process and facilitated the efficient removal of toxic ginkgolic acid.This work can help to understand the physical mechanism regarding detoxification of ginkgo kernel juice by probiotic fermentation,and offer potential strategies to enhance the safety of ginkgo kernel products.

Injection of biosurfactant and chemical surfactant following hot water injection to enhance heavy oil recovery

This study investigates the potential of enhancing oil recovery from a Middle East heavy oil field via hot water injection followed by injection of a chemical surfactant and/or a biosurfactant produced by a Bacillus subtilis strain which was isolated from oil-contaminated soil.The results reveal that the biosurfactant and the chemical surfactant reduced the residual oil saturation after a hot water flood.Moreover,it was found that the performance of the biosurfactant increased by mixing it with the chemical surfactant.It is expected that the structure of the biosurfactant used in this study was changed when mixed with the chemical surfactant as a probable synergetic effect of biosurfactant-chemical surfactants was observed on enhancing oil recovery,when used as a mixture,rather than alone.This work proved that it is more feasible to inject the biosurfactant as a blend with the chemical surfactant,at the tertiary recovery stage.This might be attributed to the fact that in the secondary mode,improvement of the macroscopic sweep efficiency is important,whereas in the tertiary recovery mode,the microscopic sweep efficiency matters mainly and it is improved by the biosurfactantchemical surfactant mixture.Also as evidenced by this study,the biosurfactant worked better than the chemical surfactant in reducing the residual heavy oil saturation after a hot water flood.

Study of metal-ceramic WC/Cu nano-wear behavior and strengthening mechanism

In view of the inherent poor tribological properties of copper,the reinforcement of copper matrix composites with WC particles presents a promising research area with significant industrial influence.Therefore,in the present study,a molecular dynamics approach is used to simulate the process of repeated friction of diamond grinding balls on WC/Cu composites,and the friction force,friction coefficient,abrasion depth,wear rate,abrasion morphology,von-Mises stress,internal defects,workpiece energy,and performance comparison of different layer thicknesses are systematically investigated in the multiple friction process.It is found that the fluctuation amplitude of friction force,friction coefficient,and abrasion depth are smaller and the fluctuation frequency is larger during the initial friction,whereas near the WC phase,there appears extreme values of the above parameters and the von-Mises stress is highly concentrated while the workpiece energy contonues to increase.In the case of the repeated friction,with the increase of friction times,the friction force,friction coefficient,and abrasion depth fluctuation amplitude increase,the fluctuation frequency decreases,the workpiece energy reaches an extreme value near the WC phase,and a large number of dislocations plug,therefore,the region is strengthened.As the distance between the grinding ball and the WC phase decreases,the more obvious the strengthening effect,the stronger the ability of workpiece to resist the wear will be.

Impact of phytoconstituents on oral health practices:a post COVID-19 observation

Appropriate oral hygiene significantly reduces the possibility of oral infections.However,dental caries and periodontal diseases are major oral health issues causing chronic diseases due to poor oral health.Recently,herbal compounds have gained interest in maintaining oral health.Extracts of burdock root(Arctium),noni fruit(Morinda citrifolia),and neem leaf(Azadirachta indica)are now used as intracanal medicaments in endodontics and periodontics.Plectranthus amboinicus species and other plants produces essential oil likeβ-caryophyllene,p-cymene,andγ-terpinene can exhibit antibacterial activity;highlighting phytoconstituents plays a vital role in oral health.The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of hygiene and sanitization,to curb SARS-CoV-2.Oral cavity is among the gateways for virus entry into saliva.Saliva is a potential reservoir of SARS-CoV-2,and there is an increased risk of infection if there is any fissure in the mouth.This enables entry of virus into the vascular system through gingival or periodontal pocket,possibly reaching lung periphery then to lung vessels by interacting with endothelial surface receptors triggering pulmonary vasoconstriction and lung damage due to endothelial dysfunction.This review aims to draw attention to the possible route of SARS-CoV-2 infection via the oral cavity and the importance of oral hygiene against COVID-19.

Crosslinked P84 copolyimide/MXene mixed matrix membrane with excellent solvent resistance and permselectivity

MXene is a novel 2D lamellar material with excellent hydrophilicity and permselectivity. MXene was introduced in the P84 polymer matrix and the matrix was crosslinked with triethylenetetramine(TETA) to improve the permselectivity and solvent resistance of the polyimide membrane. The membrane was characterized with SEM, AFM and ATR-FTIR, and effects of MXene content on the membrane morphology and separation performance are investigated. The membrane prepared with 18% P84 and 1% MXene shows high rejection(100%) to gentian violet(408) and high flux(268 L·m^-2·h^-1) at 0.1 MPa and ambient temperature. MXene endows the membrane with much water channel and denser functional layer which improves the membrane performance obviously. The membrane shows excellent solvent resistance to dimethylformamide(DMF), acetone and methanol after crosslinking with TETA during the 18 days of immersion.

The control and optimization of macro/micro-structure of ion conductive membranes for energy conversion and storage

Ion conductive membranes(ICMs)are frequently used as separators for energy conversion and storage technologies of fuel cells,flow battery,and hydrogen pump,because of their good ion-selective conduction and low electronic conductivity.Firstly,this feature article reviews the recent studies on the development of new nonfluorinated ICMs with low cost and their macro/micro-structure control.In general,these new nonfluorinated ICMs have lower conductivity than commercial perfluorinated ones,due to their poor ion transport channels.Increasing ion exchange capacity(IEC)would create more continuous hydrophilic channels,thus enhancing the conductivity.However,high IEC also expands the overall hydrophilic domains,weakens the interaction between polymer chains,enhances the mobility of polymer chains,and eventually induces larger swelling.The micro-scale expansion and macro-scale swelling of the ICMs with high IEC could be controlled by limiting the mobility of polymer chains.Based on this strategy,some ef ficient techniques have been developed,including covalent crosslinking,semi-interpenatrating polymer network,and blending.Secondly,this review introduces the optimization of macro/microstructure of both perfluorinated and nonfluorinated ICMs to improve the performance.Macro-scale multilayer composite is an ef ficient way to enhance the mechanical strength and the dimensional stability of the ICMs,and could also decrease the content of per fluorosulfonic acid resin in the membrane,thereby reducing the cost of the perfluorinated ICMs.Long side chain,multiple functionalization,small molecule inducing micro-phase separation,electrospun nano fiber,and organic–inorganic hybrid could construct more ef ficient ion transport channels,improving the ion conductivity of ICMs.

Review on structural control and modification of graphene oxide-based membranes in water treatment: From separation performance to robust operation

Membrane separation has become an important technology to deal with the global water crisis. The polymerbased membrane technology is currently in the forefront of water purification and desalination but is plagued with some bottlenecks. Laminated graphene oxide(GO) membranes exhibit excellent advantages in water purification and desalination due to the single atomic layer structure, hydrophilic property, rich oxygen-containing groups for modification, mechanical and chemical robust, anti-fouling properties, facile and large-scale production, etc. Thus the GO-based membrane technology is believed to offer huge opportunities for efficient and practical water treatment. This review systematically summarizes the current progress on the water flux and selectivity intensification, stability improvement, anti-fouling and anti-biofouling ability enhancement by structural control and modification. To improve the performance of the laminated GO membrane, interlayer spacing tunability and surface modification are mainly used to enhance its water flux and selectivity. It is found that the stability and biofouling also block the service life of the GO membrane. The crosslinking method is found to effectively solve the stability of GO membrane in aqueous environment. Introducing nanoparticles is a widely used method to improve the membrane biofouling ability. Overall, we believe that this review could provide benefit to researchers in the area of GO-based membrane technology for water treatment.

Hydrothermal Synthesis,Structure and Properties of a 3D Pillar-layered Metal-organic Framework Based on Amino-arenedisulfonate Ligand

One novel metal-organic framework(MOF), [Ba(L)(HO)](1, HL =aniline-2,5-disulfonic acid), has been synthesized by hydrothermal method. Each barium atom is eleven-coordinated into a distorted monocapped pentagonal antiprismatic arrangement. Compound 1 shows an interesting 3 D pillar-layered structure constructed from 2 D inorganic layers[Ba(SO)(HO)]and organic pillars of phenyl moieties of L2-linkages. The inorganic layers are supported by the organic pillars, generating a novel 3 D open framework structure with {3, 4~6, 5~5, 6~5,7~4}2{3}{5} topology. The result of fluorescence measurement can reveal that the decayed emission band centered at 492 nm may be caused by the interactions of the ligands and the metal ions.Compound 1 exhibits selective toward the adsorption of COover Nat 273 K.

All-solid-state flexible asymmetric supercapacitors with high energy and power densities based on NiCo_2S_4@MnS and active carbon

Electrode material based on a novel core–shell structure consisting of NiCoS（NCS） solid fiber core and Mn S（MS） sheet shell（NCS@MS） in situ grown on carbon cloth（CC） has been successfully prepared by a simple sulfurization-assisted hydrothermal method for high performance supercapacitor. The synthesized NiCoS@Mn S/CC electrode shows high capacitance of 1908.3 F gat a current density of 0.5 A gwhich is higher than those of NiCoSand Mn S at the same current density. A flexible all-solid-state asymmetric supercapacitor（ASC） is constructed by using NiCoS@Mn S/CC as positive electrode, active carbon/CC as negative electrode and KOH/poly（vinyl alcohol）(PVA) as electrolyte. The optimized ASC shows a maximum energy density of 23.3 Wh kgat 1 A g, a maximum power density of about7.5 kw kgat 10 A gand remarkable cycling stability. After 9000 cycles, the ASC still exhibited67.8% retention rate and largely unchanged charge/discharge curves. The excellent electrochemical properties are resulted from the novel core–shell structure of the NiCoS@Mn S/CC electrode, which possesses both high surface area for Faraday redox reaction and superior kinetics of charge transport. The NiCoS@Mn S/CC electrode shows a promising potential for energy storage applications in the future.

Modelling and Fixed Bed Column Adsorption of Cr(Ⅵ) onto Orthophosphoric Acid-activated Lignin

The advantage of using an available and abundant residual biomass, such as lignin, as a raw material for activated carbons is that it provides additional economical interest to the technical studies. In the current investigation, a more complete understanding of adsorption of Cr（VI） from aqueous systems onto HaPO4-acid activated lignin has been achieved via microcolumns, which were operated under various process conditions. The practice of using microcolumn is appropriate for defining the adsorption parameters and for screening a large number of poten- tial adsorbents. The effects of solution pH （2-8）, initial metal ion concentration （0.483-1.981 mmol.L-1）, flow rate （1.0-3.1 cm3-min-1）, ionic strength （0.01-0.30 mmol-L-1） and adsorbent mass （0.11 0.465 g） on Cr（VI） adsorption were studied by assessing the microcolmnn breakthrough curve. The microcolumn data were fitted by the Thomas model, the modified Dose model and the BDST model. As expected, the adsorption capacity increased with initial Cr（VI） concentration. High linear flow rates, pH values and ionic strength led to early breakthrough of Cr（VI）. The model constants obtained in this study can be used for the design of pilot scale adsorption process.

Dynamics and Predictive Control of Gas Phase Propylene Polymerization in Fluidized Bed Reactors

A two-phase dynamic model, describing gas phase propylene polymerization in a fluidized bed reactor, was used to explore the dynamic behavior and process control of the polypropylene production rate and reactor temperature. The open loop analysis revealed the nonlinear behavior of the polypropylene fluidized bed reactor, jus- tifying the use of an advanced control algorithm for efficient control of the process variables. In this case, a central- ized model predictive control （MPC） technique was implemented to control the polypropylene production rate and reactor temperature by manipulating the catalyst feed rate and cooling water flow rate respectively. The corre- sponding MPC controller was able to track changes in the setpoint smoothly for the reactor temperature and pro- duction rate while the setpoint tracking of the conventional proportional-integral （PI） controller was oscillatory with overshoots and obvious interaction between the reactor temperature and production rate loops. The MPC was able to produce controller moves which not only were well within the specified input constraints for both control vari- ables, but also non-aggressive and sufficiently smooth for practical implementations. Furthermore, the closed loop dynamic simulations indicated that the speed of rejecting the process disturbances for the MPC controller were also acceotable for both controlled variables.

Synthesis and Tribological Behaviour of 1,3,4-Thiadiazole Schiff Base Derivatives as Multifunctional Lubricant Additives

Six new 1,3,4-thiadiazole Schiff base derivatives were synthesized and characterized by IR spectroscopy and ~1H NMR spectrometry, and their anti-corrosion properties and thermal stability were investigated via thermogravimetric analysis(TGA) and copper strip corrosion test. The tribological behavior of the said Schiff base derivatives was evaluated on an Optimol SRV~?4 oscillating reciprocating friction and wear tester. The worn surfaces of the steel discs were investigated using a scanning electron microscope(SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer(EDS). The test results indicated that these thiadiazole Schiff base derivatives possessed favourable thermal stability, corrosion inhibiting ability and the capability of improving the tribological characteristic of the base oil effectively. It is assumed that the adsorbed additives probably reacted with the steel surfaces during the friction process, resulting in the formation of a protective film composed of sulphates, sulphides and organic nitrogen compounds.

Experimental and modelling study of the solubility of CO_2 in various CaCl_2 solutions at different temperatures and pressures

Study of the thermodynamic behaviour of CaCl2-H2O-CO2 systems is important in different scientific areas in the chemical and petroleum engineering fields. For example, a system including salt- H20-CO2 is a common system in CO2 geological storage. During carbonate matrix acidizing, this mixture also appears as the spent acid. Hence, study of the behaviour of this system and the solubility of CO2 in CaCl2 brine in different thermodynamic conditions is critical. In this study, CO2 solubility in 0, 1.90 and 4.80 mol/L CaCl2 solutions at 328.15 to 375.15 K and 68.9 to 206.8 bar were measured. These values are normal for oil reservoirs. A popular thermodynamic model is available in the literature for estimating the CO2 solubility in pure water and NaC1 solutions. In this paper, the available model was modified by experimental work to be applicable for CaCl2 as well. Based on the measured data, the component interaction parameters in the base model were adjusted for a CaCl2-H2O-CO2 system. The developed model could predict CO2 solubility in different conditions with remarkable accuracy, particularly for high concentration solutions and at high pressures. This improvement is up to 65% better than in the base model. This model can be used in Darcy scale models for predicting wormhole propagation during carbonate matrix acidizing.

Quaternary-ammonium-immobilized polystyrenes as efficient and reusable heterogeneous catalysts for synthesis of cyclic carbonate:Effects of linking chains and pendent hydroxyl group

Spherical polystyrene‐supported ammonium salts containing different linking chains between the support and ammonium groups were prepared as efficient and easily reusable heterogeneous catalysts for the cycloadditions of CO2and epoxides.The effects of the length of the linking chains and a hydroxyl group pendent on the linking chain on the catalytic performance of ionic liquid immobilized catalysts and their mechanisms were studied through experiments and density functional theory calculations.It was found that,compared with a short linking chain,a long chain can make the halogen anion more negative and provide a larger contact area of the catalysts with the reactants,thus enhancing the reaction kinetics.The hydroxyl group can stretch the C-O bonds of the epoxides,promoting the reaction thermodynamics.As a result,for the cycloaddition of propylene oxide,the yield of propylene carbonate is much higher for the catalyst with a long linking chain(yield:91.4%)compared with the yield for that with a short chain(yield:70.9%),and is further increased in the presence of pendent hydroxyl groups(yield:98.5%).The catalyst also shows a high catalytic activity even at mild temperature and good reusability(yield:≥96%for10cycles),and the selectivity is always above99%.

A Comparative Study on Hemp(Cannabis sativa)Essential Oil Extraction Using Traditional and Advanced Techniques

A comparative study of Cannabis sativa(Hemp)essential constituents obtained by using Supercritical Fluid Extraction(SCFE),Steam Distillation(SD)and Hydrodistillation(HD)is presented here.The optimized extraction temperatures were 130,110and 50℃for hydrodistillation,steam distillation and supercritical fluid extraction respectively.The essential oil of C.sativa was analyzed by using Gas chromatography mass spectrometry(GC-MS).A total of 33,30and 31components have been identified in HD,SD and SCFE respectively.Yield of essential oil using SCFE(0.039%)was more than HD(0.025%)and SD(0.035%)extraction respectively.The main component of sesquiterpenes obtained by hydrodistillation at 130℃with their percentages included caryophyllene(40.58%),trans-α-bergamotene(5.41%),humulene(10.97%),cis-β-farnesene(8.53%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(2.13%),d-limonene(6.46%),p-cymol(0.65%)and cineole(2.58%)respectively.The main component of sesquiterpenes obtained by SD steam distillation at110℃including caryophyllene(38.60%)trans-α-bergamotene(4.22%),humulene(10.26%),cis-β-farnesene(6.67%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(3.21%),d-limonene(7.07%),p-cymol(2.59%)and cineole(3.88%)whereas the more percentages of major components were obtained by SCFE at 50℃included caryophyllene(44.31%),trans-α-bergamotene(6.79%),humulene(11.97%)cis-β-farnesene(9.71%)and monoterpenes includedα-pinene(0.45%),d-limonene(2.13%)p-cymol(0.19%)and cineole(1.38%)respectively.We found yield/efficiency,chemical composition,quality of the essential oils by supercritical fluid extraction superior in terms of modern,green,saving energy and a rapid approach as compared to traditional techniques.

Synthesis,Structure,and Surface Photo-electric Properties of a New Zn(Ⅱ)Coordination Complex Constructed from 2-(1H-benzotriazol-1-yl)acetic Acid and 1,10-Phenanthroline Ligands

A new binuclear Zn^Ⅱ coordination complex,Zn2（bta）（phen）2（Cl）3（1,Hbta = 2-（1Hbenzotriazol-1-yl）acetic acid and phen = 1,10-phenanthroline）,has been synthesized and characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction,IR spectroscopy,elemental,and photoluminescent analysis.Complex 1 crystallizes in triclinic system,space group P1 with a = 9.3040（19）,b = 10.694（2）,c =16.841（3） A°,α = 101.18（3）,β = 105.77（3）,γ = 91.72（3）°,V= 1575.8（5） A°3,C（32）H（22）Zn2Cl3N7O2,Mr =773.66,Dc = 1.631 g/cm^3,Z = 2,F（000） = 780,μ = 1.820 mm^-1,the final R = 0.1238 and wR =0.1131.X-ray diffraction analyses indicate that 1 displays two crystallographic independent Zn^Ⅱmetal centers with a distorted tetragonal pyramidal（ZnN4O） and a tetrahedral（ZnNCl3） geometries,respectively.The phen serves as a common N,N＇-bidentate ligand,and the bta^- as a unique N,O-bridged ligand in 1.In the crystal,1 forms a stable 3D supramolecular architecture by trifurcated hydrogen bonding C-H…C1 interactions and C-H…π,π…π stacking.1 showed photo-electric conversion properties.

Molar volume of eutectic solvents as a function of molar composition and temperature

The conventional Rackett model for predicting liquid molar volume has been modified to cater for the effect of molar composition of the Deep Eutectic Solvents(DES). The experimental molar volume data for a group of commonly used DES has been used for optimizing the improved model. The data involved different molar compositions of each DES. The validation of the new model was performed on another set of DESs. The average relative deviation of the model on the training and validation datasets was approximately 0.1% while the Rackett model gave a relative deviation of more than 1.6%. The modified model deals with variations in DES molar composition and temperature in a more consistent way than the original Rackett model which exhibits monotonic performance degradation as temperature moves away from reference conditions. Having the composition of the DES as a model variable enhances the practical utilization of the predicting model in diverse design and process simulation applications.

Methane hydrate formation in porous media:Overview and perspectives

Natural gas hydrate(NGH)has recently received more attention as a cleaner alternative energy source that not only reduces carbon emissions caused by the use of conventional fossil fuels but also plays a key role in global climate change.Furthermore,hydrate-based technologies,particularly hydrate-based carbon capture and storage,have enormous promise for decreasing global carbon emissions,and porous media play an important role in all hydrate-based technologies.Accordingly,this paper reviews the recent applications of porous media in the field of methane hydrate(MH)formation and analyzes the influence of porous media systems on MH phase equilibria and formation kinetics.This is because the efficiency of hydrate-based technologies is determined mainly by the phase equilibrium and formation kinetics of hydrates.The influence of the nature of the media on MH formation in porous media systems is comprehensively summarized to understand how porous media can efficiently enhance the kinetics of hydrate formation.Promoters are necessary for rapid hydrate formation,and the effect of various promoters on MH formation was also evaluated.Based on the aforementioned overview and understanding,the mechanisms for MH formation in various porous media systems are proposed.Finally,the future perspectives and challenges of hydrate-based technologies in tackling global climate change were discussed.This review provides a fundamental understanding of the application and development of porous media in rapid hydrate formation,a fair evaluation of the performance of various porous media systems,and critical insights into major research foci.

Enhanced near-zero-CO2-emission chemicals-oriented oil production from coal with inherent CO2 recycling: Part I—PRB coal fast pyrolysis coupled with CO2/CH4 reforming

In this study,the Powder River Basin(PRB)coal fast pyrolysis was conducted at 700°C in the atmosphere of syngas produced by CH4-CO2 reforming in two different patterns,including the double reactors pattern(the first reactor is for syngas production and the second is for coal pyrolysis)and double layers pattern(catalyst was at upper layer and coal was at lower layer).Besides,pure gases atmosphere including N2,H2,CO,H2-CO were also tested to investigate the mechanism of the coal pyrolysis under different atmospheres.The pyrolysis products including gas,liquid and char were characterized,the result showed that,compared with the inert atmosphere,the tar yield is improved with the reducing atmospheres,as well as the tar quality.The hydrogen partial pressure is the key point for that improvement.In the atmosphere of H2,the tar yield was increased by 31.3%and the contained BTX(benzene,toluene and xylene)and naphthalene were increased by 27.1%and 133.4%.The double reactors pattern also performed outstandingly,with 25.4%increment of tar yield and 25.0%and 79.4%for the BTX and naphthalene.The double layers pattern is not effective enough due to the low temperature(700°C)in which the Ni-based catalyst was not fully activated.

Blocking Behavior of Organic Solid Phase in the Carbon Dioxide Multiphase and Multicomponent Displacement Process

Better dealing with carbon issues can support the management of current greenhouse gas emissions while achieving energy economic diversification and energy security. Carbon dioxide displacement has become the most acknowledged and practical method in enhanced oil recovery system. This is because of its oil sweep efficiency and ability to reduce the level of greenhouse gas emission. Nevertheless, it would lead to the organic solid phase deposition, which causes the changes of the wettability and the damages of wellbores and reservoirs. In this study, we used slim tube test and component test to research the dynamic characteristics of displacement process. In addition, the mechanism of porous media blockage was also investigated. Results show that when the displacement pressure closed to the minimum miscibility pressure, reservoir blockage in pore throat could happen. Component test characterizes that during near miscible displacement process, the components of oil sample varied obviously, the variation range of peak component carbon marks fluctuated strongly. Crude oil component differentiation could happen after carbon dioxide fully contacted with oil. Besides, the rapid extraction mechanism of aromatic hydrocarbons played a significant role in this process under such condition. The reason is that the solubility of saturated hydrocarbons to asphaltene and non-hydrocarbons is obviously weaker than aromatic hydrocarbons. Controlling the pressure is considered as an important link to prevent the occurrence of blocking in the carbon dioxide multiphase and multicomponent displacement process.