Electromagnetic nature of nuclear forces and the toroid structure of the helion and the alpha particle

In the present paper, we consider the nucleons in the helium-3 and helium-4 nuclei as tori. These tori rotate with constant angular velocity around an axis, which is perpendicular to the rotation plane and passes through the centre of mass of the nuclei. Based on exact analytical expressions for the electrostatic interaction between two spheres with arbitrary radii and charges derived by us recently, we find that the well-known potential binding energy for the helion and for the alpha particle is of electromagnetic character. Using the above mentioned formulae, we find the interaction force in the nuclei under consideration. Our toroid model recovers the basic experimental results not only for the binding energy, but also for the stability, radii, spins and the magnetic moments of the helion and the alpha particle.

Electromagnetic nature of the nuclear forces and toroid structure of the deuteron and triton

In this paper we model in a new way the nuclei of deuterium and tritium. We consider the nucleons as toroids that rotate at a constant angular velocity around a line perpendicular to their rotation plane and passing through the center of mass of the nuclei. Based on exact analytical formulas obtained by us for the electrostatic interaction between two spheres with arbitrary radii and charges, we obtain that the known binding energy of the deuteron and triton has an electromagnetic nature. We also obtain through these formulas the force of interaction inside these nuclei. Besides that, within the framework of the classical model we use, we calculate the volumes and mass densities of the nucleons. Throughout all that we use the experimentally obtained results for the radii and masses of the nucleons and nuclei under study. Through our toroid model we confirm the main experimental results obtained for the deuteron and triton not only for the binding energy but also for the magnetic moments, spins and stability.

Motion machines of second kind

The second law of thermodynamics, i.e. the law stating that the entropy in isolated macroscopic system can never decrease, is tightly connected to the work of the device called perpetual motion machine of second kind. Often this law is also defined as the inability to construct such a device. In the current paper we give complete, independent and consistent definitions of static, stationary and changing physical field. Based on that for the first time we give summarising, correct and complete definitions of natural resource machine and perpetual motion machine of second kind as well as motion machine of second kind in the set of tardyons and luxons. We present a principal structure of a motion machine of second kind using which we show that the Clausius statement and its equivalent statements in the thermodynamics can be violated for a practically big interval-time even under equilibrium fluctuations.

Integrated Assessment of the Ecological Status of Bulgarian Lowland and Semi-Mountain Natural Lakes

This work focuses on an integrated approach for lake ecological status assessment, elaborated according to the requirements of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). Data from five lowland and semi-mountain lakes in Bulgaria (Southeast Europe) collected from two years (2011-2012) form the basis for an integrated assessment and the definition of reference conditions. Several metrics were applied in combination, to classify lakes into five ecological status classes. Assemblages of aquatic organisms: phytoplankton, macrophytes and benthic macroinvertebrates, together with 11 supporting physico-chemical parameters were studied. The assessed unique conditions suggested that reference conditions of Bulgarian lakes have natural variability. This first baseline study illustrated specific cases within the lake types that should be assessed in details before providing standardized classification systems in compliance with the requirements of WFD.