Contamination of Environment with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in India

Environment in India is contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) due to occurring of large anthropogenic activities i.e. fuel combustion, mineral roasting and biomass burning. Hence, contamination of 13 toxic PAHs: phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benz (a) anthracene, ben-zo (b) fluoranthene, benzo (k) fluoranthene, benzo (a) pyrene, benzo (ghi) perylene, dibenz (ah) anthracene, indeno1,2,3-(cd) pyrene, coronene and coronene in the environment (i.e. ambient particulate matter, road dust, sludge and sewage) of the most industrialized area: Raipur city, India is described. The ΣPAH13 concentration in the 16 environment materials was ranged from 7980 - 1,051,300 μg/kg with mean value of 172,613 ± 154,726 μg/kg. The concentration variations, toxicities and sources of the PAHs in various environmental compartments are discussed.

Geochemistry of Rare Earth Elements in Sediment of Central India

The rare earth elements (REE) are of great interests due to wide industrial applications. In the present work, geochemistry of REE in the contaminated pond sediment of Ambagarh Chowki, cen-tral India is described. The concentration (n = 24) of La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Eu, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Th and U was ranged from 16 - 119, 41 - 163, 4.1 - 28, 16 - 99, 0.7 - 2.7, 3.2 - 18, 2.7 - 16, 0.4 - 2.3, 2.2 - 13, 0.4 - 2.4, 1.1 - 6.1, 0.2 - 0.8, 0.9 - 4.8, 0.13 - 0.70, 6 - 25 and 0.46 - 1.86 mg/kg with mean value of 42 ± 9, 89 ± 13, 9.4 ± 1.9, 34 ± 7, 1.2 ± 0.2, 6.3 ± 1.2, 5.4 ± 1.0, 0.8 ± 0.1, 4.2 ± 0.8, 0.8 ± 0.2, 2.0 ± 0.4, 0.3 ± 0.1, 1.6 ± 0.3, 0.24 ± 0.04, 11 ± 2 and 1.14 ± 0.13 mg/kg, respectively. The concen-tration ratio of ∑LREE/∑HREE, La/Y and Th/U are discussed. The spatial distribution and sources of the REE are described.

Heavy Metal Contamination of Vegetables

In India, several (>50) vegetables are widely used as food due to their high nutrition values. However, vegetables in industrial area are getting contaminated with heavy metals by disturbing biological and biochemical processes in the human body. In present study, the risk of human health by heavy metals (Fe, As, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd and Hg) through the intake of common vegetables i.e. Solanum lycopersicum, Solanum melongena, Amaranthus tricolor L., Chenopodium album L., Spinacia oleracea and Coriandrum sativum obtained from the largest coal burning basin, Korba, India is described . The concentration of Fe, As, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and Hg in the soils (n = 6) was ranged from 18,328 - 37,980, 85 - 105, 34 - 72, 314 - 760, 146 - 165, 126 - 164, 1.11 - 1.39, 116 - 148 and 0.11 - 0.21 mg/kg with mean value (p = 0.05) of 28,011 ± 6582, 96 ± 6, 57 ± 11, 597 ± 148, 153 ± 5, 145 ± 11, 1.26 ± 0.10, 133 ± 11 and 0.16 ± 0.03 mg/kg, respectively. The contamination, sources and bioaccumulation, pollution and health risk indices of the heavy metals i.e. As, Fe, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd and Hg in the plants are described.

Micronutrient Status in Soil of Central India

Two major issues, i.e. large crop productions and huge anthropogenic activities (e.g. fuel burning and mineral roasting) disturb the micronutrient balance in the soil of India. In this work, the available and total status of eight micronutrients i.e. Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Mo, and S of the soils in the most urbanized area: Raipur area, Chhattisgarh, India (extending over ≈ 2 × 104 km2) is described. The available status of micronutrients i.e. Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Mo and SO42- in the soils (n = 100) was ranged from 30 - 8253, 205 - 2800, 2.0 - 8.1, 0.7 - 5.0, 2.2 - 31.2, 0.1 - 13.4, 0.1 - 8.9 and 41 - 747 mg/kg with mean value of (at 95% probability) 642 ± 186, 1178 ± 119, 4.3 ± 0.3, 2.3 ± 0.2, 12.8 ± 1.3, 3.9 ± 0.6, 1.5 ± 0.3 and 281 ± 25 mg/kg, respectively. The concentration variations, deficiencies and toxicities of the micronutrients in the soil are discussed.

Contamination of Heavy Metals and Nutrients in Sediment, Sludge and Sewage of India

The stagnant water bodies in India are sink for contaminant i.e. detergent, fertilizer, nutrients, heavy metal, pesticide, microbe, etc. The contamination and sources of elements i.e. Al, K, P, S, Cl, As, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb in the sediment, sludge and sewage materials of the most industrialized cities of central India i.e. Raipur, Bhilai and Korba is described. The dominated metals i.e. Al, K, Ca, Ti, Fe and Mn in the geowaste materials (n = 20) contributed in the range of 4.8% - 36.3% with mean value of 10.2% ± 2.9%. The ∑4 concentration of nutrients i.e. P, K, S and Cl ranged from 1.2 - 12.5 g/kg with mean value of 7.9 ± 1.3 g/kg. The concentration of other heavy metals (HMs) i.e. As, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb ranged from 12 - 105, 35 - 175, 88 - 392, 14 - 77, 32 - 185, 38 - 626 and 18 - 228 mg/kg with mean value of 644 ± 78, 83 ± 15, 182 ± 41, 44 ± 7, 68 ± 18, 199 ± 71 and 85 ± 25 mg/kg, respectively. The spatial and vertical distribution, enrichment and sources of the elements in the sediments are discussed.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls Contamination of Sludge in India

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) exist in all compartments of the ecosystem due to wide industrial applications and production during burning processes. The PCBs congeners were quantified in the industrial, municipal and agricultural wastes of the most industrialized area of the country, Raipur city, India. The concentration of ΣPCBs in the sludge, sewage and agriculture wastes (n = 4) was ranged from 497 - 800 μg/kg with mean value of 634 ± 146 μg/kg. The PCBs congeners detected in the waste materials were ranged from 56 - 85 with mean value of 75 ± 13. The highest number of congeners was quantified in the sludge materials due to the existence of the heavy PCBs. The PCBs congeners were found to decrease vertically due to the adsorption by the geo-media. The distribution, sources and toxicities of PCBs congeners in the waste materials are discussed.

Contamination of Lead and Mercury in Coal Basin of India

The coal is contaminated with toxic metals at the trace levels. They are released into the environment during mining, handling and burning of coal. The Korba basin has one of the largest coal exploitation areas in the country. In this work, contamination and sources of toxic metals i.e. Hg and Pb in the air, soil and sediment of the Korba basin, India are described. The concentration of Hg and Pb in the ambient air was ranged from 7.4 - 29 and 7.0 - 585 ng/m3 with mean value of 18 ± 4 and 129 ± 104 ng/m3 in the winter season. The mean concentration of Hg in the soil and sediment was 0.22 ± 0.03 and 0.44 ± 0.08 mg/kg, respectively. The higher concentration of Pb in the environmental samples was observed.

Exposure of Fluoride in Coal Basin

Coal is a dirty fuel contaminated with F- and other elements. Several million tons of coal are burnt in Korba basin, central India to generate electricity with pouring fluorine and other elements into the environment. The water is contaminated with F- and other chemicals beyond the permissible limits. The contaminated water is consumed by the human and animals by excreting the balanced toxicants through the stool and urine. Several folds higher concentration of F- in urine (44 mg/L) and stool (266 mg/kg) samples of the cattle are observed. The prevalence of fluorosis diseases in cattle of the Korba basin is reported.

Assessment of Road Dust Contamination in India

The road dusts (RD) are fugitive in nature causing potential health hazards to people living in highways. They are generated from different sources on the roads and being a valuable archive of environmental information. In the present work, contamination assessment of 18 heavy metals and ions in road dusts of the country are described. Techniques i.e. ion selective, ion chromatography and atomic absorption spectrophotometers were used for analysis of the ions and metals. The content of F-, Cl-, , , , Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, As, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb and Hg in the road dusts was ranged from 75 - 895, 276 - 12718, 48 - 1423, 243 - 10,580, 11 - 539, 290 - 46,484, 110 - 7716, 84 - 1771, 595 - 15,955, 24 - 42, 164 - 526, 1711 - 5218, 63,850 - 144,835, 47 - 62, 81 - 720, 166 - 450, 92 - 295 and 0.05 - 0.12 mg/kg with mean value of 224 ± 43, 3734 ± 895, 592 ± 895, 2859 ± 662, 143 ± 29, 4826 ± 2049, 1565 ± 411, 837 ± 121, 8545 ± 1288, 31 ± 4, 246 ± 82, 3002 ± 851, 91,331 ± 18,587, 54 ± 4, 206 ± 145, 241 ± 64, 171 ± 42 and 0.08 ± 0.02 mg/kg, respectively (at 95% probability). The enrichment, variation, correlation and sources of the contaminants are discussed.

Fluoride Contamination of Groundwater and Health Hazard in Central India

The basic bed rocks of central India are contaminated with fluorite minerals. The overuse of groundwater for irrigation causes increased mineralization of F- in the groundwater. This contaminated groundwater is widely used for drinking and other household purposes. The excess F- is excreted through urine of animals. In this work, the exposure of contaminated groundwater in domestic animals of Dongargarh city, Chhattisgarh, India is studied. The symptoms of fluorosis diseases in the domestic animals i.e. cattle and buffalo are surveyed. The quality and sources of the contaminants of the groundwater are discussed.

Heavy Metal Contamination of Tree Leaves

The study of heavy metal (HMs) contamination of environment is of great interest due to their serious health hazard. In this work, the contamination of tree leaves with the HMs in the most polluted industrial city, Korba, India is described. The leaves of common trees i.e. Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma, Eucalyptus, Ficus religiosa, Mangifera indica and Tectona grandis were selected for assessment of the HMs contamination as bioindicator. The elevated concentration of HMs (i.e. As, Fe, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and Hg) in the tree leaves was observed, ranging from 2.8 - 43, 728 - 5182, 8.6 - 49, 48 - 1196, 43 - 406, 79 - 360, 1.12 - 1.65, 1.6 - 16.4 and 0.13 - 0.76 mg/kg, respectively. The concentration, enrichment and sources of the HMs in the leaves are described. Azadirachta indica leaves, accumulating higher concentration of the HMs, showed a higher efficiency as bioindicator for the urban pollution.

Sewage Pollution in Central India

Raipur is a fast growing city in central India due to being commercial centre for the steel, cement and forest products of the country. Large quantity (≈300 million lit/day) of untreated sewage waste water is discharged into seven reservoirs located in the city. Sewage carries excessive nutrients, heavy metals, organics, bacteria, yeast and fungi by leaking contents into the drinking water which cause acute health problems, ranging from common diarrhoea to deadly diseases such as hepatitis, cholera, typhoid fever, etc. Therefore, in this work, the microbial and chemical contamination of sewage waste of Raipur city, Chhattisgarh, India is described.

Contamination of Water, Dust, Soil, Rock and Urine with Fluoride in Central India

At least 15% of 0.1 million people residing in 117 villages of Tamnar block (Chhattisgarh, central India) are suffering from fluorosis diseases. In this work, the contamination of F- in the environment (i.e. water, soil, rock and urine) of the Tamnar block is described. The concentration variations of F-, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Al, Mn, Fe and Zn in the groundwater are reported. The F- content in the water was ranged from 1.7 - 17 mg/L with mean value of 9.0 ± 3.7 mg/L. Fluoride was enriched up to 3-, 54-, 69- and 244-folds in the urine, soil, dust and rock, respectively. The cluster and factor analysis models were used to apportion sources of F- and other elements in the water.

Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Central India

The groundwater is widely used for irrigation of rice crops. The overuse of groundwater causes depletion of the water quality (i.e. enormous increase in conductivity, hardness and ion and metal contents, etc.) in several regions of the country and world. In this work, the quality of the groundwater in the densestrice cropping area, Saraipali, Chhattisgarh, Central India is discussed. The water is sodic in nature with extremely high electrical conductivity. The mean concentration (n = 30) of F-, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ and Fe in the water was 1.2 ± 0.2, 98 ± 31, 46 ± 15, 56 ± 9, 19 ± 4, 206 ± 25, 9.2 ± 2.3, 39 ± 6, 114 ± 19 and 1.7 ± 0.6 mg/L, respectively. The sources of the contaminants are apportioned by using the factor analysis model. The suitability of the groundwater for the drinking and irrigation purposes is assessed.

Pit Lake Water Quality of Central India

Several pit lakes exist in the Raipur area due to lime stone mining. The water of pit lakes is used for bathing, washing and irrigation purposes. They are found to be contaminated with toxicants i.e. fluoride, surfactants and microbes far above the recommended limits. In this work, the water quality of 29 pit lakes locates in two districts: Raipur and Baloda Bazar, Chhattisgarh, India are assessed for drinking and irrigation purposes.

Contamination of Paddy Soil and Rice with Arsenic

The drinking water and food are main pathway entry of the As in humans and animals. Their in-takes cause diseases i.e. skin cancer, vascular disorder, etc. A wide variety of the rice is cultivated in the central India. The field soil and rice cultivated in the summer season at Koudikasa village, central India were selected for the As contamination studies. The concentration (n = 20) of total- As (AsT) in the field soil, rice grain, husk, straw and root was ranged from 44 - 270, 0.17 - 0.72, 0.40 - 1.58, 2.5 - 5.9 and 204 - 354 mg/kg with mean value of 126 ± 28, 0.47 ± 0.07, 0.83 ± 0.15, 4.2 ± 0.5 and 276 ± 21 mg/kg, respectively. The total arsenic, monomethylarsenonate, dimethylarsinite and inorganic As in the rice grain are quantified.

Urban Groundwater Quality in India

The electrical conductivity, alkalinity, salinity, hardness and chemical load of the groundwater in urban area of the country are increased enormously due to excessive urban stresses by making water unsafe for drinking purposes. Therefore, the groundwater quality of Raipur city, capital of Chhattisgarh state, India has been investigated. The physico-chemical characteristic of the groundwater along with the chemical loading variations is described. Various indices were used for rating of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes. The cluster and factor analysis models were used for source apportion of the contaminants.

Urban Pond Water Contamination in India

The stagnant water reservoirs in urban area of India are severely contaminated with surfactant and microbe due to anthropogenic activities. In this work, water quality of pond water of the most industrialized city: Raipur, CG, India is described. The concentration of surfactant in the term of sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) in water (n = 16) is ranged from 7.0 - 27 mg/L with mean value of 17 ± 3 mg/L. All ponds are found to be contaminated with microbes i.e. bacteria, algae and fungi at elevated levels. The physico-chemical characteristics of the pond water are discussed.

Contamination of Industrial Waste Water in Central India

The most of iron, cement, paper and plastic related industries are running in Raipur area of the country. They use a large amount of water by discharging effluents into the streams and rivers by polluting nearby water resources. In this work, the physico-chemical characteristics of discharged waste water of 34 industries (i.e. iron, steel, power, paper and polymer) are described. The waste water is found to be acidic in nature with high contents of F- and other ions.

Silica Particulate Pollution in Central India

Asbestos exposure is known to cause asbestosis i.e. lung cancer (mesothelioma) with increased risk of diseases i.e. gastrointestinal, colorectal, throat, kidney, esophageal, and gallbladder cancer. Therefore, in the present work, the concentration of SiO2 associated to the coarse and fine particulates in the ambient air of most industrialized area of central India i.e. Raipur city (capital of Chhattisgarh state) is described. The concentration of SiO2 in ambient air associated to the PM10 and PM2.5 was ranged from 6.6 to 102 and 0.2 to 15 μg/m3 with mean value of 30.0 ± 6.0 and 4.3 ± 0.8 μg/m3, respectively. The seasonal, spatial and temporal variations of SiO2 in the air are described.