El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Variations and Climate Changes Worldwide

This investigation aims to study the El-Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events in these three phases: El Niño, La Niña, and neutral. Warm and cold events relate to the Spring/Summer seasons. This paper will search for connections between the ENSO events and climate anomalies worldwide. There is some speculation that those events would be necessary for the climate anomalies observed worldwide. After analyzing the data from the reports to the ENSO, it shows almost periodicity from 1950-2023. We emphasized the occurrence of El Niño two years, when it was most prominent, and the climate anomalies (following NOAA maps), 2015 and 2023. The results indicated that the observed climate anomalies couldn’t be linked to the abnormal events observed. The worldwide temperatures in those years enhanced mostly in 2023. It shows an abnormal behavior compared with all the years scrutinized and analyzed since the records began. Therefore, there must be unknown factors beyond ENSO that rule the worldwide temperatures and the climate anomalies observed.

Possible Connections between X-Solar Flares and Worldwide Variation in Seismicity Enhancement

We developed a?statistical study analyzing global seismicity enhancement and its variation?overtwenty years.?X-flares sometimes occur in conjunction with Coronal Mass Ejections (CME),which make their connection with the Earth’s magnetosphere stronger.?The preliminary study divided the Earth into seven regions determined by longitude and latitude, and nine levels of depth valid for most locations?in the?Pacific area.?The results showed that X beams influenced seismicity in terrestrial localities, mainly high magnitude earthquakes occurring below the crust at 70 km.?These internal enhancements happen without the presence of any external forces such as studied in Solar Speed Winds.?Nevertheless, those variations are perceptible in the presence of intense X flares and CME and less observed in the periods during which flares were absent. Two cases of high magnitude earthquakes in recent?years are analyzed, and the extreme external conditions of those events fit?with this theory.

Sun Disturbances on Earth’s Volcanism

This paper searches for a connection between volcanoes and solar variability. Solar events have been investigated as possible interference with hazardous natural events on Earth. The first results pointed out that during the solar minimum, the frequency and strength of volcanoes increased. However, solar variability is not the only factor disturbing volcanic eruptions;there is also seasonality. There is a double interference from the Sun on the volcanoes, one from the solar cycles, and the second is the seasons.

Climate Changes Consequences from Sun-Earth Connections and Anthropogenic Relationships

This paper is a study to understand how climate changed last fifty years. There are two theories: the first one considers the solar variability and the influence of those alterations on climate;the second one blames human activity and the consequences on temperatures and disruption on the environment created by humans. Our conclusions pointed out that dimensions involved between Earth and Sun, and Earth/Atmosphere, the second one can disturb the temperature on Earth’s surface and make seasonality variations impossible to be explained only by Sun/Earth connections.

Milk: An Alternative Beverage for Hydration?

The hydration status of a physically active individual or athlete can influence his/her physical or mental performance. The degree of hypohydration may lead to serious health problems, and consequently to impair athletic performance. The consumption of water or carbohydrate-electrolyte beverages before, during and after exercise is essential to maintain fluid balance and prevent dehydration. Besides these drinks, research findings have pointed using bovine milk as an alternative to sports drinks to optimize hydration levels in athletes and physically active individuals. The nutritional composition of cow’s milk promotes post-exercise rehydration process, due to the natural presence of water and electrolytes such as sodium and potassium. Although most studies have confirmed that bovine milk is a viable alternative for rehydration, recent studies have not reported significant differences between milk and some sports drinks for hydration process. Thus, milk consumption could be used as an alternative beverage for the hydration process.

Anthropogenic Enhancement of Earthquakes in the Conterminous USA

Since the 1950s, small tremors created by human actions have been catalogued and recorded by the USGS. However, there is no academic explanation of the mechanism involved in these quakes. The aim of this work is to show that the propagation of mechanical fractures created in certain areas is one factor responsible for triggering earthquakes. Technically, this fracturing process depends on the ratio between pressure and tension, i.e., Young’s modulus, and locally depends on the specific material under pressure. Examining the entire territory of the U.S., we were able to identify certain states where Griffith’s theory was applied to explain the results found in those states. This study works with public records available from USGS. Therefore, any classified event or information is outside of the scope of this paper. We also investigate mid-continent or intraplate earthquakes during the period 2000-2016 with magnitudes M2 to M3.8 in shallow depths that appear to be amplified in consonance with development by companies in fracking, oil-gas assessment, mining, quarry blasting, experimental explosions, and collapses. Of particular interest was the enhancement of earthquakes during 2000-2016 for events M ≥ 4 surrounding the Mississippi Lime near the Oklahoma/Kansas border. Overall, all the anthropogenic events could be elucidated by Griffith theory.

Seasonality Variability and Periodicities for Ultra-Deep Earthquakes Worldwide

Our last study found that deepest-depth earthquakes with larger magnitudes (M6 or above) showed seasonality, which is dependent on the area searched. The main results indicated strong evidence that the causes for the delays in enhancements along the period investigated were due to the tectonics also, not only the season. Therefore, if the inquiry was about an area in Northern Hemisphere, the season in which the increases occurred is different than the season in the Southern Hemisphere. Also, higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere or around the Equator, displayed seasonality similarly where the tremors appear to increase during the Spring and Summer. This did not happen to the Southern Hemisphere where disturbances and anomalies occurred without showing much connection to the seasons in the analyzed period. However, some of the regions presented periodicities independent from the seasons.

Seasonality and Tectonic Influences on Subduction Zones for Ultra-Deep Earthquakes

Our previous research has found that deep or very deep earthquakes can be influenced by different seasons of the year. It also indicates that other factors may impact the seasonality in addition to these external parameters. This would explain why the response from Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere for the seasons is different. In the current research, we will focus on very deep earthquakes over a very long period, 1950-2017, which have high magnitude of M ≥ 6 with depth ≥ 500 km and named ultra-deep earthquakes (UDQ). We will separate such events by coordinates of each subduction area located in the Pacific Ring of Fire to find which effects the seasons have on these specific areas. Former tomographic studies in such regions pointed out that each area mentioned had systematic differences in the slab configuration along arcs. Our conclusions showed that those discrepancies may influence the enhancement of earthquakes in some seasons or months.

Influence of Volcanic Activity on Weather and Climate Changes

This paper examines possible connections between volcanic eruptions and their consequences on the weather. Gas emissions, such as CO2 and SO2, are vital in the troposphere and change temperatures on Earth’s surface. The water vapor discharges can be moved for three atmospheric layers creating extra atmospheric rivers and disrupting the Polar vortex. All those deviations will bring consequences to the weather. It depends on the intensity, the emission type, the kind of volcano, and the location. Then, eruptions can change the atmospheric layers with sudden fluctuations unexpected for the season.

Ice Sheet Melt and Ozone Hole Variations on Three Solar Cycles Possible Anthropogenic Interactions

This paper investigated the information about Ice sheet melt and Ozone hole variations during three solar cycles. After performing the inquiry on the data, the final results pointed out that both phenomena varying accord with Earth’s seasonality. The sea melt extension depends on the season and if the ocean waters are warmer around the polar caps. We checked the suggestion that anthropogenic perturbations could influence the variations in both phenomena.