Degree of style coiling is associated with corolla-tube length in the nectarless flowers of Roscoea schneideriana

The plant-pollinator‘arms race’model posits that a major driver of the evolution of elongated corollas in flowers is reciprocal selection for‘morphological fit’between pollinator-tongue length and access distance to nectar(usually corolla-tube length).Evidence for the pollinator-mediated selection on tube length and evolution of multiple,correlated floral traits remains inconclusive.To gain possible insights into the strength of stabilizing selection by assessing standing phenotypic variation,we measured a series of functionally important floral traits,including corolla tube length and‘effective’tube depth and degree of style coiling.We then calculated coefficients of variation(CV)for these traits in three field populations of R.schneideriana.Unlike in most long-tubed flowers,the bottom part of the corolla tube is completely occupied by the style,with no room for nectar.The length of this portion of the corolla tube was more variable(higher CV)than the upper part of the corolla tube,suggesting that functional tube depth was under stronger stabilizing selection.The degree of style coiling was negatively related to the corolla-tube length in all three populations of R.schneideriana,suggesting that there may be conflicting selection acting on style length and corolla-tube length,which are otherwise usually tightly correlated.Given the lack of nectar in the flowers of this species,the long corolla tubes and long styles may represent morphological holdovers from ancestors that were pollinated by long-tongued pollinators,as is still seen in related species in the western Himalayas.

Phylogenomics and integrative taxonomy reveal two new species of Amana(Liliaceae)

Until now the genus Amana(Liliaceae),known as ’East Asian tulips’,has contained just seven species.In this study,a phylogenomic and integrative taxonomic approach was used to reveal two new species,Amana nanyueensis from Central China and A.tianmuensis from East China.A.nanyueensis resembles Amana edulis in possessing a densely villous-woolly bulb tunic and two opposite bracts,but differs in its leaves and anthers.Amana tianmuensis resembles Amana erythronioides in possessing three verticillate bracts and yellow anthers,but differs in aspects of its leaves and bulbs.These four species are clearly separated from each other in principal components analysis based on morphology.Phylogenomic analyses based on plastid CDS further support the species delimitation of A.nanyueensis and A.tianmuensis and suggests they are closely related to A.edulis.Cytological analysis shows that A.nanyueensis and A tianmuensis are both diploid(2n=2x=24),different from A edulis,which is either diploid(northern populations) or tetraploid(southern populations,2n=4x=48).The pollen morphology of A.nanyueensis is similar to other Amana species(single-groove germination aperture),but A.tianmuensis is quite different because of the presence of a sulcus membrane,which creates the illusion of double grooves.Ecological niche modelling also revealed a niche differentiation between A.edulis,A.nanyueensis and A.tianmuensis.

Borana rangeland of southern Ethiopia:Estimating biomass production and carrying capacity using field and remote sensing data

Assessing rangeland productivity is critical to reduce ecological degradation and promote sustainable livestock management.Here,we estimated biomass productivity and carrying capacity dynamics in the Borana rangeland of southern Ethiopia by using field-based data and remote sensing data(i.e.,normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)).Data was collected from both rainy and dry seasons when biomass production was high and low respectively.Results of linear regression showed that both biomass production(R^(2)_(adj)=0.672)and NDVI value(R^(2)_(adj)=0.471)were significantly decreased from 1990 to 2019.Field data and NDVI values for mean annual biomass showed a significant linear relationship.The model accuracy in the annual relationship between the observed and predicted biomass values was strong(R^(2)_(adj)=0.986)but with high standard error,indicating that the observed biomass production in the rangeland area was not in good condition as compared with the predicted one.This study suggests that,using NDVI data and field-based data in combined way has high potential to estimate rangeland biomass and carrying capacity dynamics at extensively grazed arid and semi-arid rangelands.And to use for estimating stoking rates and predicting future management techniques for decision making.

Genome-wide analysis indicates diverse physiological roles of the turnip (Brassica rapa var. rapa) oligopeptide transporters gene family

Oligopeptide transporters(OPTs) encode integral membrane-localized proteins and have a broad range of substrate transport capabilities. Here, 28 BrrOPT genes were identified in the turnip. Phylogenetic analyses revealed two well-supported clades in the OPT family, containing 15 BrrOPTs and 13 BrrYSLs.The exon/intron structure of OPT clade are conserved but the yellow stripe-like(YSL) clade was different.The exon/intron of the YSL clade possesses structural differences, whereas the YSL class motifs structure are conserved. The OPT genes are distributed unevenly among the chromosomes of the turnip genome.Phylogenetic and chromosomal distribution analyses revealed that the expansion of the OPT gene family is mainly attributable to segmental duplication. For the expression profiles at different developmental stages, a comprehensive analysis provided insights into the possible functional divergence among members of the paralog OPT gene family. Different expression levels under a variety of ion deficiencies also indicated that the OPT family underwent functional divergence during long-term evolution.Furthermore. BrrOPT8.1, BrrYSL1.2, BrrYSL1.3, BrrYSL6 and BrrYSL9 responded to Fe(Ⅱ) treatments and BrrYSL7 responded to calcium treatments, BrrYSL6 responded to multiple treatments in root, suggesting that turnip OPTs may be involved in mediating cross-talk among different ion deficiencies. Our data provide important information for further functional dissection of BrrOPTs, especially in transporting metal ions and nutrient deficiency stress adaptation.

Assigning conservation value and identifying hotspots of endemic rattan diversity in the Western Ghats, India

Rattans, or canes, are one of the most important non-timber forest products supporting the livelihood of many forest-dwelling communities in South and North-eastern India. Due to increased demand for rattan products, rattans have been extracted indiscriminately from the Western Ghats, a 1600-km mountain chain running parallel to the west coast of India. Extensive harvesting, loss of habitat and poor regeneration has resulted in dwindling rattan populations, necessitating an urgent attempt to conserve existing rattan resources. In this study, using niche-modelling tools, an attempt has been made to identify areas of high species richness of rattans in the Western Ghats, one of the mega-diversity regions of the world. We have also developed conservation values for 21 economically important and endemic rattans of the Western Ghats. We identified at least two to three sites of extremely high species richness outside the existing protected area network that should be prioritized for in situ conservation.This study emphasizes the need to develop strategies for the long-term conservation of rattans in the Western Ghats, India.

Comprehensive integration of single-cell transcriptomic data illuminates the regulatory network architecture of plant cell fate specification

Plant morphogenesis relies on precise gene expression programs at the proper time and position which is orchestrated by transcription factors(TFs)in intricate regulatory networks in a cell-type specific manner.Here we introduced a comprehensive single-cell transcriptomic atlas of Arabidopsis seedlings.This atlas is the result of meticulous integration of 63 previously published scRNA-seq datasets,addressing batch effects and conserving biological variance.This integration spans a broad spectrum of tissues,including both below-and above-ground parts.Utilizing a rigorous approach for cell type annotation,we identified 47 distinct cell types or states,largely expanding our current view of plant cell compositions.We systematically constructed cell-type specific gene regulatory networks and uncovered key regulators that act in a coordinated manner to control cell-type specific gene expression.Taken together,our study not only offers extensive plant cell atlas exploration that serves as a valuable resource,but also provides molecular insights into gene-regulatory programs that varies from different cell types.

Forest characteristics,population structure and growth trends of threatened relict Pseudotsuga forrestii in China

Pseudotsuga forrestii is a relict evergreen coniferous tree species in Pinaceae endemic to China.P.forrestii tree numbers have greatly decreased due to deforestation,over-utilization and habitat degradation.Here we clarify P.forrestii community types,structure,species diversity,seedling recruitments and growth trends.We identified four P.forrestii community types:(1)Pseudotsuga forrestii-Quercus guyavifolia-Acer davidii evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest;(2)Pseudotsuga forrestii-Pinus yunnanensis-Quercus guyavifolia evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest;(3)Pseudotsuga forrestii evergreen coniferous forest;(4)Pseudotsuga forrestii-Abies georgei var.smithii evergreen coniferous forest.P.forrestii forests are characterized by both warm temperate and temperate affinities.Simpson diversity,Pielou evenness,Shannon-Wiener diversity indices ranged from 0.75 to 0.76,0.74-0.81,and 1.62-1.93,respectively,with no significant differences among the four forest types.The forest stratification was multilayered.The canopy layer was generally 10-25 m tall,with the emergent layer reached 25-42 m.DBH and age structures of P.forrestii showed multimodal distributions.Its maximum age P.forrestii was 570 years with a DBH of 143 cm.The growth of annual ring width of P.forrestii was slow,and generally decreased with age,whereas the basal area at the breast height increased with age.Established seedlings/saplings were mainly found in unstable micro-habitats.Regeneration of P.forrestii depends on moderate natural disturbances.Finally,we provide recommendations for P.forrestii conservation.

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Current patterns of plant diversity and phylogenetic structure on the Kunlun Mountains

Large-scale patterns of biodiversity and the underlying mechanisms that regulate these patterns are central topics in biogeography and macroecology.The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau serves as a natural laboratory for studying these issues.However,most previous studies have focused on the entire Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,leaving independent physical geographic subunits in the region less well understood.We studied the current plant diversity of the Kunlun Mountains,an independent physical geographic subunit located in northwestern China on the northern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.We integrated measures of species distribution,geological history,and phylogeography,and analyzed the taxonomic richness,phylogenetic diversity,and community phylogenetic structure of the current plant diversity in the area.The distribution patterns of 1911 seed plants showed that species were distributed mainly in the eastern regions of the Kunlun Mountains.The taxonomic richness,phylogenetic diversity,and genera richness showed that the eastern regions of the Kunlun Mountains should be the priority area of biodiversity conservation,particularly the southeastern regions.The proportion of Chinese endemic species inhabiting the Kunlun Mountains and their floristic similarity may indicate that the current patterns of species diversity were favored via species colonization.The Hengduan Mountains,a biodiversity hotspot,is likely the largest source of species colonization of the Kunlun Mountains after the Quaternary.The net relatedness index indicated that 20 of the 28 communities examined were phylo-genetically dispersed,while the remaining communities were phylogenetically clustered.The nearest taxon index indicated that 27 of the 28 communities were phylogenetically clustered.These results suggest that species colonization and habitat filtering may have contributed to the current plant diversity of the Kunlun Mountains via ecological and evolutionary processes,and habitat filtering may play an important role in this ecological process.

Plastid phylogenomics and biogeography of the medicinal plant lineage Hyoscyameae(Solanaceae)

The cosmopolitan family Solanaceae,which originated and first diversified in South America,is economically important.The tribe Hyoscyameae is one of the three clades in Solanaceae that occurs outside of the New World;Hyoscyameae genera are distributed mainly in Europe and Asia,and have centers of species diversity in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and adjacent regions.Although many phylogenetic studies have focused on Solanaceae,the phylogenetic relationships within the tribe Hyoscyameae and its biogeographic history remain obscure.In this study,we reconstructed the phylogeny of Hyoscyameae based on whole chloroplast genome data,and estimated lineage divergence times according to the newly reported fruit fossil from the Eocene Patagonia,Physalis infinemundi,the earliest known fossil of Solanaceae.We reconstructed a robust phylogeny of Hyoscyameae that reveals the berry fruit-type Atropa is sister to the six capsule-bearing genera(Hyoscyameae sensu stricto),Atropanthe is sister to the clade(Scopolia,Physochlaina,Przewalskia),and together they are sister to the robustly supported AnisoduseHyoscyamus clade.The stem age of Hyoscyameae was inferred to be in the Eocene(47.11 Ma,95%HPD:36.75e57.86 Ma),and the crown ages of Hyoscyameae sensu stricto were estimated as the early Miocene(22.52 Ma,95%HPD:15.19e30.53 Ma),which shows a close correlation with the rapid uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau at the Paleogene/Neogene boundary.Our results provide insights into the phylogenetic relationships and the history of the biogeographic diversification of the tribe Hyoscyameae,as well as plant diversification on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Early Oligocene Itea (Iteaceae) leaves from East Asia and their biogeographic implications

Compressed materials of fossil foliage described here as Itea polyneura sp.nov.(Iteaceae)were collected from the Oligocene ofWenshan,Yunnan Province,southwestern China.The identification is based on the following characters:eucamptodromous secondary veins,strict scalariform tertiary veins,irregular tooth with setaceous apex.The leaf morphology of all modern and fossil species was compared with the new species from Wenshan and show that I.polyneura is most similar to the extant East Asian species Itea omeiensis,which inhabits subtropical forests of southern China.This discovery represents the first unambiguous leaf fossil record of Itea in East Asia.Together with other species in the Wenshan flora and evidence from several other flora in southern China,these findings demonstrate that Itea from East Asia arose with the Paleogene modernization.

High regional genetic differentiation of an endangered relict plant Craigia yunnanensis and implications for its conservation

Of the genus Craigia,widespread in the Tertiary,only two relict species survived to modern times.One species is now possibly extinct and the other one,Craigia yunnanensis,is severely endangered.Extensive surveys have located six C.yunnanensis populations in Yunnan province,southwest China.Using fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism(AFLP),the genetic diversity and population structure of these populations were examined.It was found that genetic diversity of C.yunnanensis was moderate at the species level,but low at regional and population levels.Analysis of population structure showed significant genetic differentiation between Wenshan and Dehong regions,apparently representing two geographically isolated for long time refuges.There are also clear indications of isolation between populations,which,together with anthropogenically caused decline of population size,will lead to general loss of the species genetic variation with subsequent loss of adaptive potential.To conserve the genetic integrity of C.yunnanensis,we recommend that ex-situ conservation should include representative samples from every population of the two differentiated regions(e.g.Wenshan and Dehong).The crosses between individuals originated from different regions should be avoided because of a high risk of outbreeding depression.As all the extant populations of C.yunnanensis are in unprotected areas with strong anthropogenic impact,there is no alternative to reintroduction of C.yunnanensis into suitable protected locations.

Hydraulic properties and drought response of a tropical bamboo (Cephalostachyum pergracile)

Bamboo plants are an essential component of tropical ecosystems,yet their vulnerability to climate extremes,such as drought,is poorly understood due to limited knowledge of their hydraulic properties.Cephalostachyum pergracile,a commonly used tropical bamboo species,exhibited a substantially higher mortality rate than other co-occurring bamboos during a severe drought event in 2019,but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear.This study investigated the leaf and stem hydraulic traits related to drought responses,including leaf-stem embolism resistance(P50leaf;P50stem) estimated using optical and X-ray microtomography methods,leaf pressure-volume and water-releasing curves.Additionally,we investigated the seasonal water potentials,native embolism level(PLC) and xylem water source using stable isotope.We found that C.pergracile exhibited strong resistance to embolism,showing low P50leaf,P50stem,and turgor loss point,despite its rapid leaf water loss.Interestingly,its leaves displayed greater resistance to embolism than its stem,suggesting a lack of effective hydraulic vulnerability segmentation(HVS) to protect the stem from excessive xylem tension.During the dry season,approximately 49% of the water was absorbed from the upper 20-cm-deep soil layer.Consequently,significant diurnal variation in leaf water potentials and an increase in midday PLC from 5.87±2.33% in the wet season to 12.87±4.09%in the dry season were observed.In summary,this study demonstrated that the rapid leaf water loss,high reliance on surface water,and a lack of effective HVS in C.pergracile accelerated water depletion and increased xylem embolism even in the typical dry season,which may explain its high mortality rate during extreme drought events in 2019.

An unprotected vulnerable relict subtropical conifer-Keteleeria evelyniana: Its forests, populations, growth and endangerment by invasive alien plant species in China

Relict subtropical coniferous forests in China face severe fragmentation,resulting in declining populations,and some are under significant threat from invasive alien species.Despite the crucial importance of understanding forest dynamics,knowledge gaps persist,particularly regarding the impact of invasive plants on vulnerable natives like Keteleeria evelyniana.In this study,we investigated the impact of invasive plants on the regeneration of forests dominated by K.evelyniana,a subtropical relict species in southwestern China.For this purpose,we characterized forest dynamics of 160 forest plots featuring K.evelyniana as the primary dominant species and determined whether the presence of invasive plants was correlated with regeneration of K.evelyniana.We identified four distinct forest types in which K.evelyniana was dominant.We found that radial growth of K.evelyniana trees is faster in younger ageclasses today than it was for older trees at the same age.The population structure of K.evelyniana in each forest type exhibited a multimodal age-class distribution.However,three forest types lacked established saplings younger than 10 years old,a situation attributed to the dense coverage of the invasive alien Ageratina adenophora.This invasive species resulted in a reduction of understory species diversity.Additionally,our analysis uncovered a significant negative correlation in phylogenetic relatedness(net relatedness index)between native and invasive alien plant species in eastern Yunnan.This suggests closely related invasive species face heightened competition,hindering successful invasion.Taken together,our findings indicate that successful establishment and habitat restoration of K.evelyniana seedling/saplings require effective measures to control invasive plants.

Two new species from Sulawesi and Borneo facilitate phylogeny and taxonomic revision of Engelhardia(Juglandaceae)

Engelhardia,a genus of Juglandaceae(the walnut family),is endemic to tropical and subtropical Asia.The rich Cenozoic fossil records and distinctive morphological characters of the living plants have been used to explore the evolutionary history and geographic distribution of Juglandaceae.However,the taxonomy of this genus has been suffered from a lack of in-depth investigation and good specimens across its distribution ranges.Species delimitation of Engelhardia was defined with seven species in 2020,but detailed information on the circumscription of the species still remains poorly understood.In this study,two new species are described from Sulawesi and Borneo,Engelhardia anminiana and E.borneensis.We also revised and reconstructed the phylogeny within Engelhardia using morphological,molecular(plastid and ribosomal),and distribution data.We sampled 787 individuals in 80 populations,and all the samples were genotyped using plastid regions,trnS-trnG,rps16,trnL-trnF,psbA-trnH,and rpl32-trnL;one ribosomal region,nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer(nrITS).The all datasets were used to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships.Then,the molecular analyses were combined for 738 sheets of specimens with 15 morphological characteristics to further explore the morphological clusters of Engelhardia.Cluster analysis using morphological data confirmed the delimitation of nine Engelhardia species.Also,phylogenetic analysis based on molecular data(i.e.,plastid and ribosomal)supported the monophyly of Engelhardia and generated phylogenetic trees that included E.fenzelii,E.roxburghiana,E.borneensis,E.hainanensis,E.anminiana,E.serrata,E.villosa,E.apoensis and the varieties of E.spicata(i.e.,E.spicata var.spicata,E.spicata var.rigida,E.spicata var.aceriflora,and E.spicata var.colebrookeana).Our comprehensive taxonomic revision of Engelhardia will provide an insight into understanding the plant diversity in tropical and subtropical Asia.

Assessing the effectiveness of community managed forests for plant diversity conservation in Meghalaya,Northeast India

In the state Meghalaya,northeast India,>80%of the forest lands are owned by local communities and managed by traditional institutions.These forests are under severe threats due to a number of human disturbances.The present study was conducted to assess the plant diversity and identify the community forests for priority conservation in Khasi Hills of Meghalaya.Floristic explorations carried out in the 87 forests reveals the presence of 1300 plant species of which 400 are either rare,endemic or threatened.Of the different forest categories,reserve forests had the highest number of species(1190),followed by sacred forests(987 species)and village forests(786 species).Majority of the forests(56)had high-species richness,irreplaceability level(42 forests)and vulnerability level(54).In terms of area,13.8%(1666.8 ha)fall under low risk while 1855 ha under high risk zone.High risk zone was mostly represented by village forests.An area of 7661.56 ha of community forests falls under high priority category and hence calls for immediate conservation actions.The conservation priority map generated in the present study will help to concentrate the protection strategy to the demarcated and adjoining areas and help conservationists and planners to evolve effective strategies for conservation of the community forests.

Transcriptome and carotenoid profiling of different varieties of Coffea arabica provides insights into fruit color formation

The processability and ultimate quality of coffee(Coffea arabica)are determined by the composition of the matured fruits.The basis of genetic variation in coffee fruit quality could be explained by studying color formation during fruit maturation.Transcriptome profiling was conducted on matured fruits of four C.arabica varieties(orange colored fruits(ORF);purple colored fruits(PF);red colored fruits(RF)and yellow colored fruits(YF))to identify key color-regulating genes,biosynthesis pathways and transcription factors implicated in fruit color formation.A total of 39,938 genes were identified in the transcriptomes of the four C.arabica varieties.In all,2745,781 and 1224 differentially expressed genes(DEGs)were detected in YF_vs_PF,YF_vs_RF and YF_vs_ORF,respectively,with 1732 DEGs conserved among the three pairwise groups.Functional annotation of the DEGs led to the detection of 28 and 82 key genes involved in the biosynthesis of carotenoids and anthocyanins,respectively.Key transcription factors bHLH,MYB,NAC,MADS,and WRKY implicated in fruit color regulation were detected.The high expression levels of gene-LOC113688784(PSY),gene-LOC113730013(b-CHY),gene-LOC113728842(CCD7),gene-LOC113689681(NCED)and gene-LOC113729473(ABA2)in YF may have accounted for the yellow coloration.The differential expression of several anthocyanin and carotenoid-specific genes in the fruits substantially account for the purple(PF),red(RF),and orange(ORF)colorations.This study provides important insights into fruit color formation and variations in C.arabica and will help to develop coffee varieties with specific color and quality traits.

Safeguarding our future by protecting biodiversity

The Anthropocene is marked by twin crises:climate change and biodiversity loss.Climate change has tended to dominate the headlines,reflecting,in part,the greater complexity of the biodiversity crisis.Biodiversity itself is a difficult concept.Land plants dominate the global biomass and terrestrial arthropods probably dominate in terms of numbers of species,but most of the Tree of Life consists of single-celled eukaryotes,bacteria,and archaea.Wild plants provide a huge variety of products and services to people,ranging from those that are species-specific,such as food,medicine,and genetic resources,to many which are partly interchangeable,such as timber and forage for domestic animals,and others which depend on the whole community,but not on individual species,such as regulation of water supply and carbon sequestration.The use of information from remote sensing has encouraged a simplified view of the values of nature's contributions to people,but this does not match the way most people value nature.We can currently estimate the proportion of species threatened by human impacts only for a few well-assessed groups,for which it ranges from 14%(birds)to 63%(cycads).Less than 8%of land plants have been assessed,but it has been estimated that 30e44%are threatened,although there are still few(0.2%)well-documented extinctions.Priorities for improving protection of biodiversity include:improving the inventory,with surveys focused on geographical areas and taxonomic groups which are under-collected;expanding the protected area system and its representativeness;controlling overexploitation;managing invasive species;conserving threatened species ex situ;restoring degraded ecosystems;and controlling climate change.The Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD)COP15 and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)COP26 meetings,both postponed to 2021,will provide an opportunity to address both crises,but success will require high ambition from all participants.

Levels of rhizome endophytic fungi fluctuate in Paris polyphylla var.yunnanensis as plants age

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis is an important medicinal plant with abundant saponins that are widely used in the pharmaceuticals industry. It is unclear why the levels of active ingredients increase as these plants age. We speculated that the concentrations of those components in the rhizomes are mediated by fungal endophytes. To test this hypothesis, we took both culture-dependent and-independent(metagenomics) approaches to analyze the communities of endophytic fungi that inhabit those rhizomes in plants of different age classes(four, six, and eight years old). In all, 147 isolates representing 18 fungal taxa were obtained from 270 segments(90 per age class). Based on morphological and genetic characteristics, Fusarium oxysporum(46.55% frequency of occurrence) was the predominant endophyte,followed by Leptodontidium sp.(8.66%) and Trichoderma viride(6.81%). Colonization of endophytic fungi was maximized in the eight-year-old rhizomes(33.33%) when compared with four-year-old(21.21%) and six-year-old(15.15%) rhizomes. Certain fungal species were present only at particular ages. For example,Alternaria sp., Cylindrocarpon sp., Chaetomium sp., Paraphaeosphaeria sporulosa, Pyrenochaeta sp., Penicillium swiecickii, T. viride, and Truncatella angustata were found only in the oldest plants. Analysis of(metagenomics) community DNA extracted from different-aged samples revealed that, at the class level,the majority of fungi had the highest sequence similarity to members of Sordariomycetes, followed by Eurotiomycetes and Saccharomycetes. These results were mostly in accord with those we obtained using culture methods. Fungal diversity and richness also changed over time. Our investigation is the first to show that the diversity of fungi in rhizomes of P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis is altered as plants age, and our findings provide a foundation for future examinations of useful compounds.

Legumes from the Paleocene sediments of India and their ecological significance

During the early Paleogene,greenhouse gases created warm global climates.These warm climates redistributed the habitat of marine and terrestrial biota globally.Understanding the ecology of biotas under extremely warm climates is important to decipher their behavior in future climate warming.Here we report two new legume fossils(Leguminocarpum meghalayensis Bhatia,Srivastava et Mehrotra sp.nov.,and Parvileguminophyllum damalgiriensis Bhatia,Srivastava et Mehrotra sp.nov.) from the late Paleocene sediments of Tura Formation of Meghalaya,northeast India.Globally,the Paleocene legume fossil records indicate that legumes most likely immigrated to India from Africa via the Ladakh-Kohistan Arc during the early Paleogene.Moreover,previously reconstructed climate data from the Tura Formation indicate that legumes were well adapted to a warm seasonal climate with monsoon rains.