New Data on Coal, Gypsum, Iron and Silica Sand Deposits and Geochemical Exploration (Pakistan): Revision of 25 Years History of Dinosaur Discoveries from Pakistan

Discoveries of many coal seams at depths by drilling carried by Geological Survey of Pakistan in Sor Range and Harnai Gochina, extended the coal seams at depth which is challenge for mine owners to exploit feasibly. Bed to bed gypsum samplings (and their chemical analyses) of huge gypsum deposits from Sulaiman foldbelt is a base for industrialist and also planers to develop cement and gypsum industries to increase export and foreign exchange for the development of area and Pakistan. Low and high grade sedimentary iron deposits, silica sand and uranium host rocks and their extensions in Sulaiman and Kirthar foldbelts are presented. Anomalies of a few base metals arise as a result of geochemical exploration carried at part of Loralai District of Balochistan. Theropod dinosaurs were frequent in India, while Poripuchian titanosaurs (Sauropoda, Dinosauria) were frequent in Pakistan. Besides some ichnotaxa, many bone taxa such as 1 titanosauriform, 14 titanosaurian sauropod (including one new titanosaur), and 3 theropod dinosaurs are established from Pakistan. Among these 12 titanosaur species and 3 theropod species are named in about 10 km2 area of Vitakri dome and 2 titanosaur species are named in about a few hundred square meter area of Mari Bohri (Kachi Bohri) which is about 10 km westward from Vitakri dome. Pakistan is a unique country which discoverd 14 diversified titanosaurs in a short area and also in a short period (67 - 66 million years ago/Ma). About 400 bones found from a few meter thick upper part of upper shale horizon of latest Maastrichtian Vitakri Formation which is base for titanosaur taxa. Cranial material is in low fraction (but include significant diverse snouts), caudal vertebrae are prominent, the cervicals, dorsals and sacrals have significant numbers, forelimb and hind limb bones have balanced fraction. Humeri, femora and tibiae are most common. To know the position of Pakistani titanosaurs among titanosaurs and sauropods, there is a need to extend list of characters for phylogenetic analyses. This broad feature list should include main characters of titanosaurs from Pakistan and also from global world.

Hydrological Modelling of the Casamance River in Its Upstream Section (Basin at Kolda Level) to Predict Its Future States as a Function of Different Stresses

Flow records for stations in the Casamance basin are incomplete. Several gaps were noted over the 1980-2021 study period, making this study tedious. The aim of this study is to assess the potential impact of climate change on the flow of the Casamance watershed at Kolda. To this end, hydrological series are simulated and then extended using the GR2M rainfall-runoff model, with a monthly time step. Projected climate data are derived from a multi-model ensemble under scenarios SSP2-4.5 (scenario with additional radiative forcing of 4.5 W/m2 by 2099) and SSP5-8.5 (scenario with additional radiative forcing of 8.5 W/m2 by 2099). An analysis of the homogeneity of the rainfall data series from the Kolda station was carried out using KhronoStat software. The Casamance watershed was then delimited using ArcGIS to determine the morphometric parameters of the basin, which will be decisive for the rest of the work. Next, monthly evapotranspiration was calculated using the formula proposed by Oudin et al. This, together with rainfall and runoff, forms the input data for the model. The GR2M model was then calibrated and cross-validated using various simulations to assess its performance and robustness in the Casamance watershed. The version of the model with the calibrated parameters will make it possible to extend Casamance river flows to 2099. This simulation of future flows with GR2M shows a decrease in the flow of the Casamance at Kolda with the two scenarios SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 during the rainy period, and almost zero flows during the dry season from the period 2040-2059.

Investigation and Evaluation of Reservoir Quality of the Upper Cretaceous Rocks (Belqa Group) in North Jordan (NW Irbid)

Upper Cretaceous rocks are widespread in Jordan, covering uncomfortably the rocks of the Lower Cretaceous (Kurnub Sandstone). These rocks consist mainly of limestone, marls, chalk, biogenic chert and phosphate of primarily marine origin. Age determination of these rocks was based on the abundance of macro and microfossil content. Man researchers subdivided the Upper Cretaceous succession. The classification of Powell (1989) is considered in this study, particularly for the Belqa Group, which is of Coniacian to Maastrichtian in age. This investigation will focus on the geology of Wadi Es Sir, Umm Ghudran;Amman silicified limestone, and Al Hisa phosphorite formations, that belong to Ajlun and Belqa Groups respectively. Moreover, sedimentary structures, lithological characteristics Microfacies types and fossil content were evaluated. Using the lithostratigraphy and the fossil content of those formations, 6 Microfacies types were identified. Evaluation of the cross-section, the tectonic processes and the prepared rose diagrams indicate that the study area was affected by compressional as well as by tensional forces. Two major tends of fracturing can be identified in the rose diagrams. The measured physical properties show that the porosity is variable and ranges between 30% and 48%. The bulk density has values between 1.8 and 2.2 g/cm3. The different obtained results point out that the studied rocks represent good reservoir.

Source Rock Evaluation and 1-D Basin Modelling Approach for the Sargelu Formation, Atrush-2 Well, Kurdistan Region-Iraq

The present study focuses on source rock evaluation of the Sargelu Formation by using core chips of rocks collected from well Atrush-2, Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq. The Rock-Eval pyrolysis and vitrinite reflectance were executed. Subsequently, the selected parameters were used for source rock evaluation and 1-D Basin Modelling calibration. The upper part of the formation mainly comprises argillaceous limestone with low content of organic matter (0.64% - 1% TOC). By contrast, the lower part is dominated with shale interval and contains high amounts of TOC values (>4% for 1272 - 1278 m) reveling good to very good quality source rock. Accordingly, good to very good hydrocarbon generation potential is suggested for this formation. Organic matter of the Sargelu Formation contains type II and mixed-type II-III kerogen. The values of Tmax and vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) demonstrate that the formation is thermally mature and in the oil zone. In order to construct a thermal history of the formation and determine the timing of hydrocarbon maturation and generation, the 1-D basin modelling PetroMod 2019.1 was used in this study. Based on the 1-D Basin modelling simulation and its outputs, about 3500 m of overburden have been eroded at the study area. The present-day heat flow was found to be 30 mW/m2. The organic matter of Sargelu Formation entered the early oil zone in 64 Ma and reached the main oil zone ca. 5 Ma. The formation is still in the main oil zone at present-day. In well Atrush-2, the highest rate of oil generation for the Sargelu Formation was in the 8.5 Ma, the onset of oil expulsion from Sargelu Formation was in 50 Ma and the expulsion mass has been reached 0.5 Mtons at present-day.

The Application of Pressure Coefficient in Judging Normal Pressure Reservoirs Connectivity—A Case Study of LD21-X and KL3-Xoilfield in Bohai Bay

Reservoir connectivity is a critical issue in the process of oil-gas exploration and development. According to the theory of fluid mechanics and the achievements of many scholars, a connected reservoir coincides with a unified formation pressure system;there is a linear relationship between formation pressure and depth in normal pressure system reservoir. However, in high-permeability or multi-phase fluid reservoirs, this method has poor applicability and limitations. Through theoretical analysis and formula derivation, a new method for judging the connectivity of normal pressure reservoirs is found, that is, the inverse proportional function relationship between the pressure coefficient and the depth. In this paper, the relationship between the pressure system and the inverse proportional function has been verified. The function of the same pressure system is unique, monotonic, and has unified asymptote and symmetry axis and vice versa. Examples show that the inverse proportional function is more accurate and reliable for judging reservoir connectivity than the linear function.

Characterization of Mineralogy, Petrography, Geochemistry and Petrogensis of Basaltic Outcrops in Jurf Ed Darawish Area, Central Jordan

This research was conducted to investigate the mineralogy, petrography, geochemistry and petrogensis of the basaltic flows in Jurf Ed Darawish (JDB) area of central Jordan. Sexton representative basalt rock samples were selected from the studied JDB outcrops. Modally, JDB consists of plagioclase, olivine, pyroxene (diopside), opaque’s, calcite and iddingsite minerals. Petrographically, basalt is holocrystalline, hypidiomorphic fine to medium grained and exhibited aphanitic to porphyritic texture. The common textures of the JDB rock samples were aphanitic, porphyritic, trachytic, glomeroporphyritic, sub ophitic, vesicular, and amygdaloidal. Geochemically, all of the inspected samples of JDB are located within Trachy basalt and plate alkaline basalt. The tectonic setting of JDB was plotted within the calcalkaline basalt and continental basaltic field. The rare-earth elements showed enrichment of the Ba and K, depletion of Ce relative to K, and enrichment of Nb and Pb with depletion of Y and positive Nb, Zr and Ti anomalies. Negative anomalies of Ba, Sr, Ti and P may be attributed to the fractionation of feldspar for Ba and Sr depletion apatite for P depletion. The positive Nb peak conforms to the tertiary as well as to recent continental alkali basalt provinces and acts as an indicator to the JDB product for the lithosphere from upwelling of the asthenosphere mantle.

Mineral Exploration in Rough Mountainous Area Using Geospatial Technology (Case Study of Al Hajar Area)

As acknowledged that the exploration is the first step before reaching the discovery of profitable economic raw materials. However, it is also representing a high risk financially because it is possible that the areas discovered is not economically worthwhile, at that time the stakeholder will confront difficult return their exploration expenses. Therefore, the exploration process executed in multiple stages before increasing expenses for the detection. The business of mineral exploration, one of high cost investment especially if it was in rugged mountain areas, which is difficult to reach and has a very high cost of access, consequentially increased the exploration costs. The reasons for doing this research in rough mountainous area using geospatial technology, can be justified to be valuable, time-saving and cost-reducing. Therefore, we can see that one of the solid factors that helped the study is using of GIS technology in the rough terrain area, which strongly and effectively contributes to the display of spatial information and linking the study, and analysis of the information collected by using GIS programs. Subsequently, its benefits minimizing exploration costs, and selecting targets with confidence and effective field work. Most of the data related to the operations of mineral exploration have a spatial nature. So, GIS has the capability for storage, updating, revising, displaying, retrieving, processing, manipulating and integrating of different geo-spatial data. By ending of this study, we will be able to save time and money and increase profitability and efficacy.

Evaluation of SEBS Algorithm for Estimation of Daily Evapotranspiration Using Landsat-8 Dataset in a Semi-Arid Region of Central Iran

Evapotranspiration is one the most important parameters in the hydrological cycle and plays a significant role in energy balance of the earth’s surface. Traditional field-based measurements approaches for calculation of daily evapotranspiration are valid only for local scales. Using advanced remote sensing technology, the spatial distribution of evapotranspiration may now be quantified more accurately. At the present study, daily evapotranspiration is estimated using Landsat 8 datasets based on the Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) algorithm over the Zayanderud Dam area in central Iran. For this purpose, three Landsat 8 datasets in the years 2013, 2014 and 2015 covering the study area were atmospherically corrected using the FLAASH approach. The biophysical parameters of the earth’s surface for SEBS algorithm, such as normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), Leaf area index (LAI), fractional vegetation cover (FC) were extracted from the visible and near infrared bands and land surface temperature was computed from thermal bands the Landsat 8 datasets. The spatial distribution of daily ET was provided separately for each year. In addition to the SEBS algorithm, the Penman-Monteith method was applied to estimate the daily ET from meteorological datasets which was obtained from two synoptic stations within the study area. Finally, the simulated daily ET values from both SEBS and Penman-Monteith method were compared to observed values obtained from a lysimeter within the study area. Although the estimated results from both SEBS and Penman-Monteith show a strong correlation with the observed values, the derived ET maps and following analysis demonstrated SEBS has higher accuracy and strength in estimation of daily ET in Zayanderud Dam region.

Structural Study and Analytical Modeling of Mangerak Salt Diapir (South West of Firozabad Fars-Iran)

Mangerak salt diapir is in the South West of Firuz Abad in Fars province, southern Iran and structurally, it is exposed in the simple folded belt of Kohzad Zagros. This diapir, now, is located in a transtentional zone in the overlapping parts of Koreh Bas right fault zone. The origin of this diapir is evaporative series of Hormuz, at the beginning of the Cambrian and ending Precambrian age. In this paper, we investigated tectonic structures around the salt dome of Mangerak. By promoting this salt dome, a variety of structures, such as marginal reverse faults, radial normal faults, folds and caves have been developed. In addition, many changes can be seen in the status line, and the amount and direction of the strata dip, thickness of rock units, and facies change, that all showed the downbuilding phenomenon in the diapir. The method was based on structural desert surveys and relevant measurements. The results show that salt domes above were rising during the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene, and pre-deformation of Zagros and in connection with basement Fault of Korebas, and probably, when sedimentation was in the Zagros basin, they have been exposed in the form of an island. Zagros deformation at the same time, the pressure released from the collision zone on the north side of the East and its wave motion, to the South West, exerts more pressure on the salt horizons and helps them to erupt. About Mangerak salt dome, which is exposed on the side of the Sayakh anticline axis and Basement fault of Korebas, two phenomena are effective in its exposing. Analytical modeling shows the life of the outcrop 31,000 years that this age is consistent with the effects of salt dome Neotectonic.

Using Petrophysical Properties of Volcanic Rocks in the Interpretation of Geophysical Data (Volcano Ebeko, Kuril Islands)

Petrophysical properties of volcanic rocks were investigated on the North-Eastern fumarolic field of the volcano Ebeko. The attempt is made to use this data in order to interpret the geo-electrical cross sections of the fumarolic field subsurface space.

Construction of Subsurface Geological Structures Using a Drilling Database: A Case Study for an Intra-Arc Basin, the Osaka Plain, Southwest Japan

Subsurface geological cross sections of 0 - 200 m depth were constructed using a dense drilling database of the Osaka Plain in the intra-arc Osaka Basin of the Japan island arc, an active plate margin. The cross sections revealed the subsurface geological structures and the geometry of folding and faulting in the basin. The comparison between the constructed subsurface cross sections and the seismic sections of the basement and basin fills at a depth of 1500 - 2000 m showed that the basement and shallow subsurface structures are similar;however, the shallow cross sections were of higher resolution than the deep seismic profiles.

Impact of Underground Mining on Shaft Lining and Aquifer in Eastern China

Serious shaft lining ruptures have often occurred in the eastern part of China since 1987 due to the complicated geological conditions. This paper tries to find out the relationship between mechanisms of shaft lining rupture and the underground mining process. The analysis is based on the existence typical engineering and geological conditions in eastern China;the impact of underground mining on the shaft lining and aquifer layer is analyzed by using numerical method. The impact factors such as different depths, thicknesses, mining widths of coal seam and different distances to the shaft are used in the analysis. The mining area under the aquifer which near the shaft lining has a significant impact on the shaft lining due to mining process, and increases the risk of occurrence of shaft lining rupture.

The Permian-Triassic Transitional Zone: Jordan, Arabian Plate;Linked to Siberian Large Igneous Province and Neo-Tethys Breakup Degassing via Climate Forcing, Atmospheric Hazard and Metal Toxicity

End-Permian Gondwana siliciclastics (50 - 70 m) of the Um Irna F exposed along the NE Dead Sea, exhibit carbonate-free fining upward cycles (FUC) deposited during acid flash flood events under tropical climate. Several ferruginous paleosol intercalations cover periods of drying upward formation (DUP) under semiarid/arid climates. Thin grey pelite beds interbedded between paleosol and overlying FUC, are interpreted as tephra deposits sourced in Siberian LIP- and Neo-Tethys (NT)-Degassing. The Wadi Bassat en Nimra-section exhibits the P-T transitional zone where flash flood deposits meet supra-/intertidal sediments of the southward-directed transgressive NT. Decreasing flash-flooding continued through the Lower Scythian (Ma’in F.) during transgression, reworking, and resedimentation. Two euryhaline foraminifera-bearing limestone beds are discussed as indicators for the end of mass extinction (recovery phase: ca. 250.8 - 250.4 Ma) possibly correlating with the Maximum Flooding Surface MFS Tr 10 (ca. 250.5 Ma) on the Arabian Shelf (Khuff cycles B;A). Comparable data from the Germanic Basin as FUC/DUP-cycles, tephrasuspicious “Grey Beds” with high concentrations of As, Co, Pb, Zn, and Cu as well as the U-Pb Age data of the Siberian LIP meet the PTB-Zone between the MFSs Intervals P 40 (ca. 254 Ma)/Tr 10 (ca 250.5 Ma) on the Arabian Shelf. MFS (Tr 10, 20, 30) and SBs resp. on the Arabian Plate, as well as Scythian Substage boundaries correlate with ∂13 C-excursions recorded at Musandam, UAE. Thereby, the ratio of greenhouse gases (+climate forcing)/aerosols und tephra (-climate forcing) takes a significant influence on the ∂13C-Variation.

First Record of Brachiopod Species in Myanmar

The Paleozoic rocks are well exposed in the Taungnyo area and the main purpose of classification is taxonomic status of the invertebrate fossils and describing the systematic paleontology of brachiopod fossils from Taungnyo Formation. Mainly distributed clastic sedimentary rocks of Taungnyo Formation (Early Carboniferous) and carbonate rocks of Moulmein Limestone Group (Permian to Middle Triassic) are well exposed in the Taungnyo area. In this study, mainly, a total of five species are recognized in the clastic sediments of Taungnyo Formation. Most brachiopods are generally found abundant and well preserved in the mudstone unit. Among them, most of the taxa have not been recorded previously. The brachiopods include: Fimbrispirifer venustus, Ovetensispirifer ovetensium, Aullacella sp., Kayserellae emanuelensis, and Chonopectus sp. All of the species are first recorded in Myanmar.

Quantitative Characterization of Interlayer Interference in Multi-Layered Sandstone Reservoirs Offshore China

X oilfield is a typical multi-layer sandstone reservoir in offshore China. In the early stage, in order to obtain economic oil production, directional well was used to adopt a set of multi-layer combined production, which resulted in serious interlayer interference, water injection inrush and low reserve utilization. Based on the theory of single-phase unstable seepage flow and the theory of oil-water two-phase non-piston displacement, the author innovatively established a mathematical model of interlayer dynamic interference in multilayer sandstone reservoirs, revealed the influence law of main controlling factors such as permeability, viscosity, starting pressure gradient and reservoir type on interlayer interference, and innovatively formed a quantitative characterization theory of interlayer interference in multilayer combined oil production. The technical demarcation of offshore multi-zone combined oil production reservoir system is formulated and the recombination of oil field development system is guided.

A New Understanding of the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation in Western Liaoning

The Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation in western Liaoning is the most important fossil production horizon of the Jehol Biota, which is widely distributed in the Mesozoic basins of western Liaoning. Due to the influence of historical data, previous scholars believed that there was no volcanic activity in the Jiufotang Formation in western Liaoning. In a field investigation in western Liaoning, the authors discovered basalt and andesite in the Hujiayingzi bed. In addition, a conformable boundary was found between the Yixian and the Jiufotang formations. It indicates that both the Jiufotang Formation and the Yixian Formation are strata containing volcanic-sedimentary rocks, only differing in strength of volcanic activity.

Reservoir Evaluation and Volumetric Analysis of Rancho Field, Niger Delta, Using Well Log and 3D Seismic Data

Exploration and exploitation for hydrocarbon are associated with a lot of complexities, it is therefore necessary to integrate available geologic models for accurate hydrocarbon prospecting and risk analysis. This study is aimed at determining the structural, petrophysical and volumetric parameters for reservoir evaluation within the Rancho field. 3D seismic data was used for evaluating the hydrocarbon potential of the field. A suite of well logs but not limited to gamma ray logs (GR), deep resistivity log (DRES), neutron log (NPHI) and density log (RHOB) from four (4) wells were employed in characterising dynamic properties of the reservoirs. The GR log was used in lithology identification while the resistivity log was used in identifying probable hydrocarbon bearing sands. A correlation exercise was carried out to identify lateral continuity and discontinuity of facies across the wells. Thereafter petrophysical parameters were analysed from the suite of wire line logs. Major faults were mapped on the 3D seismic data and identified hydrocarbon bearing sand tops from the well logs were mapped as horizons on the seismic section, maps were generated and volumetric analysis was done. Nine (9) hydrocarbon sands (Sands A - I) were identified within the study area. The well log revealed an alternation of sand and shale layers as well as shale layers increased in thickness with depth, while the sand bodies reduced in thickness with depth which characterized the Abgada Formation of the Niger Delta. The effective porosities of the sands range from 21% - 31%, the permeability ranges from 28% - 44%, 70% - 80% for the net to gross, volume of shale range from 14% - 40% and hydrocarbon saturation ranges from 63% - 82%. Twelve (12) faults were mapped within the study area and the structural styles revealed a fault assisted closures. The volumetric analysis showed that Sand F had Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place (STOIIP) of 5,050,000,000 bbls of oil and Sand G had STOIIP of 17,870,000,000 bbls, these sands are proposed to be developd because of the volume of oil in them and area covered by the reservoir, calculated Gross Rock Volume (GRV) of 29.5 km3 and 104.5 km3 respectively.

Microbiostratigrapy of the Paleocene-Lower Eocene Sequences in the Bibi Hakimeh 2 Subsurface Section Located in the SW of Iran

This paper investigates the biostratigraphy of the Palaeocene-Lower Eocene sequences in the Bibi Hakimeh 2 subsurface/subterranean sections located in the Bibi Hakimeh Oil Field. The Palaeocene-Lower Eocene sequences are induced as part of the Pabdeh Formation. They are 49 m in thickness and are made up of clayey limestone with chert intercalations. Biostratigraphic investigations identified 10 genera and 51 species of Planktonic Foraminifera which with respect to the specific planktonic species and according to the newest Wade Biozonation led to the determination of 9 biozones and 4 subzones. The Palaeocene-Early Eocene biostratigraphic boundary determined previously in accordance with the Wynd Biozonation was reviewed with respect to the new biozonation. Moreover, the impression of the PETM on the Planktonic Foraminifera found in the Bibi Hakimeh subsurface section, has been occurred at P/E boundary on global scale was studied. Based on this research we can conclude the P/E biostratigraphic boundary border is occurred ranges between 2125 - 2124 meters in Pabdeh formation.

Assessing Urban Parks of District 13 of Mashhad Municipality

Due to the shortage and poor distribution of per capita green space in the city of Mashhad, this descriptive-analytic research emphasized on practical aspects and information collection based on field survey. This study was carried out using SPSS of version 19 (SPSS: the name of a family of computer software that is used for statistical analysis). To study the status of each research component, one sample T-Test was used and for comparison and ranking of research components in all regions and each region, Friedman test was applied. Accordingly, after identifying the parks in district 13 of Mashhad Municipality, six indicators of beauty, security, access, distribution-dispersion, area-scope were prioritized, examined, and analyzed. According to the results of one sample T-Test, the average of beauty component is more than the mean 5. On the other hand, significance level of this component is less than 0.05. According to this average and significance level of the test, it can be concluded with a confidence of over 95% that the status of beauty index is desirable. According to the results of Friedman test in all areas of district 13 of Mashhad Municipality, indexes of beauty, distribution-dispersion, and security are of utmost importance. As well, indexes of access (transportation), available facilities, and area-scope were respectively placed in the fourth to sixth position.

Major and Trace Element Chemical Compositional Signatures of Some Granitic Rocks Related to Metal Mineralization in Japan

We analyzed the major and trace element chemical compositions of 66 granitic rocks from 15 different areas in Japan. The intrusions from which the samples were collected were associated with Pb-Zn, Mo, Cu-Fe, Sn, or W mineralization and, for comparison, samples were also collected from intrusions not associated with any metal mineralization. The analyses indicated that the granitic rocks associated with Pb-Zn, Mo, or Cu-Fe mineralization were granites, granodiorites, or diorites, and that they were all I-type and formed in a volcanic arc tectonic setting. The granitic rocks associated with Sn or W mineralization and barren granitic rocks were classified as granites and as I-type with the exception of a few S-type granitic rocks. Most of the Sn- or W-associated granitic rocks and barren granitic rocks are thought to have formed in a volcanic arc tectonic setting. The Pb-Zn-, Mo-, or Cu-Fe-associated granitic rocks rarely shows negative Eu anomalies and a few of them are adakitic rocks, whereas all of the Sn- or W-associated granitic rocks and barren granitic rocks show negative Eu anomalies. For these Japanese granitic rocks, the contents of K2O, La, Y, Rb, Ta, Pb, Th, U, and REEs other than Eu increase with increasing SiO2. Conversely, the contents of major components other than Na2O and K2O and the trace components V, Zn, Sr, Eu, and Sc decrease with increasing SiO2. The Zr, Sn, and Hf abundances increase with increasing SiO2 up to 70 wt%, but their abundances decrease when the SiO2 exceeds 70 wt%. This suggests that granitic magma is saturated with these elements at 70 wt% of SiO2, approximately.